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Caragana

2009-06-05T16:32:09Z

59.92.109.153:

{{Inc|
Caragana (Caragan, its Mongolian name). Leguminosae. Pea Tree. Ornamental shrubs chiefly grown for their bright yellow flowers; some species are also used for hedges.
Leaves abruptly pinnate, often with persistent spiny-pointed rachis; lfts. small, entire; stipules deciduous or persistent and spiny: fls. papilionaceous; standard upright, like the wings with long claws; keel obtuse and straight; stamens 10, 9 connate, 1 free; ovary scarcely stipitate: pod linear, terete, straight, 2- valved, with several seeds. —More than 50 species from S. Russia to China, most of them in Cent. Asia. Monograph by Komarov in Act. Hort. Petrop. 29:179-388 (1908), with 16 plates.
The caraganas are deciduous unarmed or spiny shrubs with yellow, rarely whitish or pinkish flowers axillary and solitary or fascicled, followed by linear pods. The cultivated species are quite hardy, except a few Himalayan species. They grow in almost any soil, but best in a sandy soil and sunny position, and are well adapted for shrubberies. C. arborescens is the only one which grows into a small tree, and is of upright habit, like C. frutex, which is about half as high and more graceful; most of the other species are low shrubs, of usually spreading habit. C. arborescens is one of the best hedge shrubs for the prairies of the Northwest.
Propagation is by seeds sown in fall or in spring; if kept dry during the winter, soaking in tepid water for two or three days before sowing will be of advantage; also increased by root-cuttings and layers, or by grafting on seedling stock of C. arborescens in spring.
C. Altagana, Poir.=C. microphylla.—C. arborteacens arenaria, Hort.=C. microplylla. —C. arenaria, Dipp.=C. aurantiaca, Koehne. —C. aurantiaca, Koehne. Allied to C. pygmaea. Fls. orange-yellow; calyx as long as broad; ovary glabrous. Siberia.—C. Boisii, Schneid. (C. microphylla var. crasse-aculeata, Bois). Allied to C. arborescens. Shrub, to 6 ft.: lfts. 10-12, obovate or narrowly obovate, about ½in. long, silky pubescent beneath at least when young, whitish beneath: stipules spiny: fls. solitary. W. China. V.F. 57.—C. brevispina, Royle (C.trifiora,Lindl.). Spines 2-3 in. long: lfts. 12-16, pubescent: fls. 2-4, on a common peduncle. Himalayas. P.F.G. 2: 184.—C. decorticans, Hemsl. Allied to C. microphylla. Shrub or small tree, spiny: lfts. 8-12, oval, less than ½ in. long: fls. 1-2. Afghanistan. H.I. 18:1725.—C. frutenscens, DC. =C. frutex.-C. Gerardiana, Royle. Spines 1½-2 in. long: stipules large, scarious: lfts. 8-12, densely pubescent: fls. 1-2, short - pedicelled. Himalayas.—C. gracilis, Hort.=C. pygmaea. — C. grandiflora, DC. Allied to C. pygmaea. Lfts. cuneate-oblong, glabrous or pubescent: fls. 1¼ in. long; calyx gibbous at the base. Caucasus.—The plant sometimes cult. under this name is a variety of C. frutex.—C. jubata, Pall. Sparingly branched shrub with very thick, spiny and villous branches: stipules large, scarious: lfts. 8-14, linear-oblong, villoua beneath: fls. whitish, 1 in. long, short-pedicelled. Siberia. F.S. 19:2013. L. B.C. 6:522. Gt. 10:331. A very distinct and curious-looking species: hardy.-C. sophoraefolia, Bess. (C. arborescens X C. microphylla. C. cuneifolia, Dipp.). Lfts. usually 12, oblong to elliptic, cuneate, acute: pods ¾in. long. Garden origin.—C. spinosa, DC. Spines 1 in. long: lfts. 4, rarely more, approximate, cuneate-lanceolate, glabrous: fls. solitary, short-pedicelled. Siberia.—C. spinosiasima, C. Koch=C. spinosa.—C. tragacanthoides, Poir. Spiny: lfts. 4-8, cuneate, oblong, pubescent: fls. solitary, short-pedicelled: calyx villous-pubescent. Himalayas.—C. triflora, Lindl.=C. brevispina. —C. vulgaris, Hort.=C. arborescens. Alfred rehder.
}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Caragana''
| image = Caragana pygmaea2.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Caragana pygmaea'' foliage and flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Fabales]]
| familia = [[Fabaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Faboideae]]
| genus = '''''Caragana'''''
| genus_authority = [[Philipp Conrad Fabricius|Fabr.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = See text
}}

'''''Caragana''''' is a genus of about 80 species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Fabaceae]], native to [[Asia]] and eastern [[Europe]].

They are [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s growing 1-6 m (3-20 ft) tall. They have even-pinnate [[leaf|leaves]] with small leaflets, and solitary or clustered mostly yellow (rarely white or pink) flowers and bearing seeds in a linear pod.

''Caragana'' species are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Dark Dagger]].

;Selected species
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Caragana ambigua]]'' Stocks
*''[[Caragana arborescens]]'' Lam.
*''[[Caragana aurantiaca]]'' Koehne
*''[[Caragana boisii]]'' C.K.Schneid.
*''[[Caragana brachyantha]]'' Rech.f.
*''[[Caragana brevifolia]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana brevispina]]'' Royle ex Benth.
*''[[Caragana bungei]]'' Ledeb.
*''[[Caragana camilli-schneideri]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana conferta]]'' Benth.
*''[[Caragana decorticans]]'' Hemsl.
*''[[Caragana densa]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana erinacea]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana franchetiana]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana frutex]]'' (L.) K.Koch
*''[[Caragana gerardiana]]'' Royle ex Benth.
*''[[Caragana grandiflora]]'' DC.
*''[[Caragana jubata]]'' (Pall.) Poir.
*''[[Caragana korshinskii]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana leucophloea]]'' Pojark.
|
*''[[Caragana leveillei]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana manshurica]]'' (Kom.) Kom.
*''[[Caragana microphylla]]'' Lam.
*''[[Caragana pleiophylla]]'' (Regel) Pojark.
*''[[Caragana polourensis]]'' Franch.
*''[[Caragana pruinosa]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana pygmaea]]'' (L.) DC.
*''[[Caragana roborovskyi]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana rosea]]'' Turcz. ex Kom.
*''[[Caragana sinica]]'' (Buc'hoz) Rehder
*''[[Caragana sophoraelia]]'' Tausch
*''[[Caragana spinosa]]'' (L.) Vahl ex Hornem.
*''[[Caragana stenophylla]]'' Pojark.
*''[[Caragana tangutica]]'' Maxim. ex Kom.
*''[[Caragana tibetica]]'' Maxim. ex Kom.
*''[[Caragana tragacanthoides]]'' (Pall.) Poir.
*''[[Caragana turkestanica]]'' Kom.
*''[[Caragana ulicina]]'' Stocks
*''[[Caragana versicolor]]'' Benth.
|}

==References==
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=105589 Flora of Pakistan: ''Caragana'']
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2061 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Caragana'']
* [http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/cgi-bin/unabridged?va=caragana Merriam-Webster Unabridged - Caragana entry]

[[Category:Faboideae]]

Caragana pygmaea

2009-06-05T16:30:57Z

59.92.109.153: New page: __NOTOC__{{Plantbox | name = ''LATINNAME''  | common_names =  | growth_habi...

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
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}}
{{Inc|

Caragana pygmaea, DC. (C. gracilis, Hort.). One to 3 ft.: spines short, ¼in.: lvs. nearly sessile; lfts. 4, approximate and almost digitate, cuneate, linear-elliptic or linear-lanceolate, glabrous, 1/3-½in. long: fls. solitary. ¾in. long, golden yellow. Caucasus to Siberia and Thibet. B.R. 12:1021.—Grafted high on C. arborescens, it forms a graceful standard tree, with pendulous branches.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana Chamlagu

2009-06-05T16:30:13Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Caragana Chamlagu, Lam. Shrub, 2-4 ft.: spines long: lfts. 4, in 2 somewhat remote pairs, chartaceous, obovate, emarginate or rounded at the apex, glabrous, ¼-¾in. long: fls. solitary, reddish yellow, 1¼ in. long. May. N.China. G.O.H. 30.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana frutex

2009-06-05T16:29:37Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Caragana frutex, Koch (C. frutescens, DC.). Fig. 791. From 6-10 ft.: lfts. 4, approximate, nearly digitate, cuneate, obovate or oblong, rounded or emarginate at the apex, glabrous, 1/3-l in. long: fls. solitary, ¾-1in. long, yellow. May. S. Russia to China. Gt. 10:348. S.B.F.G. 3:227. Var. grandiflora, Koehne. Fls. somewhat longer than 1 in.: lfts. usually large and broad. Var. latifolia, Schneid. (var. obtusifolia, Hort.). Lfts. more than an inch long and about ½ in. broad: fls. as in the type.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana fruticosa

2009-06-05T16:29:19Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Caragana fruticosa, Bess. (C. Redowskii, Fisch. C. arborescens var. arenaria, Sims). Shrub, to 6 ft., very similar to the preceding: lfts. 10-14, oblong-elliptic to obovate, cuneate at the base, rounded at the apex; stipules herbaceous or somewhat spiny; pedicels and calyx puberulous, calyx-teeth very short: pods about 1 in. long; seeds brown. Amurland, Korea. B.M. 1886 (notgood).
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana arborescens

2009-06-05T16:28:54Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Caragana arborescens, Lam. Shrub or small tree, to 20 ft.: lfts. 8-12, obovate or oblong, sparsely pubescent beneath or glabrous at length: fls. 2-4, pale or bright yellow, ¾in. long; pedicels usually longer than the fls.: pods about 2 in. long. May, June. Siberia, Manchuria. G.O. H.67. Var. pendula, Dipp., with pendulous branches, is the most remarkable; it should be grafted high. M.D.G. 1897:425. Var. Lorbergii, Koehne. Lfts. linear to linear-oblanceolate, about 1 in. long. A very peculiar and striking form.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana microphylla

2009-06-05T16:28:15Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Caragana microphylla, Lam. (C.Altagana,Poir. C. arborescens var. arenaria.Hort.). Fig. 790. From 4-6 ft.: lfts. 12-18, obovate, pubescent when young, grayish green, 1/3in. long or shorter: fls. 1 or 2, yellow, ¾in. long; pedicel about as long as the fl. Siberia, China. L.B. C. 11:1064.—Under this name a dwarf form of C. arborescens is often cult. Var. megalantha, Schneid. Lfts. bright green,1/3 or sometimes ½in. long: fls. 1¼ in. long.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Caragana

2009-06-05T16:27:28Z

59.92.109.153:

Capsicum baccatum

2009-06-05T16:26:27Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. baccatum, Irish (C. baccatum, Linn.). Plants not so tall, but more erect than the species: branches slender, fastigiate, flexuose: corolla small, spreading, about ½in.: fr. ovate or sub-round, about ¼in. diam. H. C. Irish.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum frutescens

2009-06-05T16:25:53Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum frutescens, Linn. Fig. 789. Shrubby perennial, 3-6 ft. high, with prominently angled or somewhat channeled st. and branches: branches loosely spreading or trailing: lvs. broadly ovate-acuminate, 3-6 in. long, 2-3½ in. wide: peduncles slender, 1-2 in. long, often in pairs, usually longer than the fr.; calyx cup-ehaped, embracing base of fr.; corolla often with ocherous markings in the throat: fr. red, obtuse or oblong-acuminate, ¾-1¼ in- long,¼-¾in. diam., very acrid.—Cult, only S., as the seasons in temperate latitudes are not long enough to mature fr.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum cerasiforme

2009-06-05T16:25:20Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. cerasiforme, Irish (C. cerasiforme, Mill.). Suffrutescent: lvs. medium size, ovate or oblong-acuminate, about 1¼-3½ in-: calyx seated on base of fr.; corolla large, spreading, ⅞-1½ in.: fr. spherical, subcordate, oblate, or occasionally obscurely pointed or slightly elongated, smooth or rarely minutely rugose or sulcate; flesh firm, 1/12-⅛in. thick, extremely pungent. Garden forms are: Cherry, Yellow Cherry, Oxheart.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum abbreviatum

2009-06-05T16:24:45Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. abbreviatum, Fingh. (C. umbilicatum, Vell. C. luteum, Lam.). Suffrutescent: lvs. broadly ovate, 2-4 in. long: peduncles slender, straight or curved, as long as or longer than the berry: fr. about 2 in. long or less, varying much in the different horticultural varieties, in general ovate, quite rugose, except in one variety, sometimes turbinate. While this variety is used to some extent for pickling, it is noted more as an ornamental plant. Some garden forms are: Celestial. Etna, Kaleidoscope, Red Wrinkled, Yellow Wrinkled.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum grossum

2009-06-05T16:24:18Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. grossum, Sendt. (C. grossum, Linn.). Herbaceous, about 2 ft. high, with few branches: lvs. very large, often 3 by 5 in., sometimes coriaceous, lower ones usually pendent; petioles deeply channeled: peduncles stout, about 1 in. long; corolla large, spreading, ⅞-1¼ in-: fr. large, oblate, oblong, or truncated, 3-4- lobed, usually with basal depression, more or less sulcate and rugose; flesh thick, firm, and of a mild flavor. Emperor, Monstrous, Bell, Sweet Mountain, Golden Dawn, Ruby King, Golden King, Brazilian Upright, Golden Upright, Squash, and others, are garden varieties.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum longum

2009-06-05T16:23:29Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. longum, Sendt. (C. Annuum. Linn. C. longum, DC.). Plant herbaceous, about 2½ ft. high, with comparatively few branches: lvs. large, often 4 in. long by 2½ in. wide: fl. large; corolla spreading,⅞-1¼ in., dingy white; calyx usually pateriform or funnelform, rarely embracing base of fr.: fr. often a foot long by 2 in. diam. at base; flesh thick and in some varieties very mild. Garden varieties are: Black Nubian,Count.y Fair, Elephant'sTrunk, Ivory Tusk.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum acuminatum

2009-06-05T16:23:02Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. acuminatum, Fingh. (C. chilense, Hort.). Long Cayenne. Heroaceous, very branchy, about 2½ ft. high, bearing a dense mass of foliage: fl. medium size, spread ½-¾in.: fr. larger than the preceding, either erect or pendent. Chile.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum fasciculatum

2009-06-05T16:22:48Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. fasciculatum, Irish (C. fasciculatum, Sturt.). Red Cluster Pepper. Fig. 788. St. herbaceous, round or nearly so: branches few: lvs. clustered or crowded in bunches about the summit, elliptical-lanceolate, pointed at both ends: fr. also clustered, erect, slender, about 3 in. long by ¼in. diam., very acrid.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum conoides

2009-06-05T16:22:08Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum Var. conoides, Irish (C. conoides, Mill.). Suffrutescent: lvs. numerous, rather small, 2-3 in. long, ¾-2 in. wide: peduncles slender, straight, erect: fls. small; calyx obconical or cup-shaped, usually embracing base of fr.; corolla greenish white, spreading,⅜-⅝in.: fr. erect, subconical or oblong-cylindrical, about 1 ¼.i in. long or less, usually shorter than the peduncles and mostly borne above the lvs., very acrid. Coral Gem, Tabasco. Gn. 66, p. 381.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum annuum

2009-06-05T16:20:55Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capsicum annuum, Linn. Fig. 787. Herbaceous or suffrutescent, grown as annuals in temperate climates, but in warmer latitudes often treated as biennials. All of the leading commercial varieties in the U. S. readily find classification within the types or botanical varieties. The species has never been found wild. It is the pimento of Trop. Amer.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capsicum

2009-06-05T16:20:24Z

59.92.109.153:

{{Inc|
Capsicum (name of uncertain origin, perhaps from kapto, to bite, on account of the pungency of the seed or pericarp; or from capsa, a chest, having reference to the form of fruit). Solanaceae. Red Pepper. Cayenne Pepper. Herbs or shrubs, originally from tropical America, but escaped from cultivation in Old World tropics, where it was once supposed to be indigenous.
Stem branchy, 1-6 ft. high, glabrous or nearly so: lvs. ovate or subelliptical, entire, acuminate: fls. white or greenish white, rarely violaceous, solitary or sometimes in 2's or 3's; corolla rotate, usually 5-lobed; stamens 5, rarely 6 or 7, with bluish anthers dehiscing longitudinally; ovary originally 2-3-loculed: fr. a juiceless berry or pod, extremely variable in form and size, many-seeded, and with more or less pungency about the seeds and pericarp. Fig. 786. The fr. becomes many loculed and monstrous in cult.—About 90 species have been named, most of which are now considered forms of one or two species. Monogr. by Irish, 9th Ann. Rept. Mo. Bot.Gard. For cult., see Pepper.

}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Capsicum''
| image = Red capsicum and cross section.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Red Capsicum and longitudinal section
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| subclassis = [[Asteridae]]
| familia = [[Solanaceae]]
| genus = '''''Capsicum'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
*''[[Capsicum annuum|C. annuum]]''
** (incl. [[bell pepper]], [[paprika]], [[pimento]], [[jalapeño]], [[cascabel]])
*''[[Capsicum frutescens|C. frutescens]]''
** (incl. [[cayenne pepper|cayenne]], [[African birdseye]])
*''[[Capsicum chinense|C. chinense]]''
** (incl. [[Habanero chile|habanero]], [[Scotch bonnet (pepper)|scotch bonnet]], [[Naga Jolokia pepper|Naga Jolokia]])
*''C. pendulum'' (incl. [[Piri piri]]}
*''C. pubescens'' (incl. [[rocoto]])
*''C. minimum''
*''C. baccatum'' (incl. [[aji pepper|Ají]])
*''C. abbreviatum''
*''C. anomalum''
** = ''Turbocapsicum anomalum''
*''C. breviflorum''
*''C. buforum''
*''C. brasilianum''
*''C. campylopodium''
*''C. cardenasii''
*''C. chacoense''
*''C. ciliare''
*''C. ciliatum''
*''C. chlorocladium''
*''C. coccineum''
*''C. cordiforme''
** = ''C. annuum''
*''C. cornutum''
*''C. dimorphum''
*''C. dusenii''
*''C. exile''
*''C. eximium''
*''C. fasciculatum''
*''C. fastigiatum''
** = ''C. frutescens''
*''C. flexuosum''
*''C. galapagoensis''
*''C. geminifolum''
*''C. hookerianum''
*''C. lanceolatum''
*''C. leptopodum''
*''C. luteum''
*''C. microcarpum''
*''C. minutiflorum''
*''C. mirabile''
*''C. parvifolium''
*''C. praetermissum''
*''C. schottianum''
*''C. scolnikianum''
*''C. stramonifolium''
** = ''Witheringia stramonifolia''
*''C. tetragonum''
*''C. tovarii''
*''C. villosum''
*''C. violaceum''
}}

'''''Capsicum''''' is a [[genus]] of [[plant]]s from the nightshade family ([[Solanaceae]]), native to [[Mexico]], and now cultivated worldwide. Some of the members of ''Capsicum'' are used as [[spice]]s, [[vegetable]]s, and [[medicine]]s. The [[fruit]] of ''Capsicum'' plants have a variety of names depending on place and type. They are commonly called [[chili pepper]], red or green pepper, or just pepper in [[British English|Britain]] and [[American English|the US]]; the large mild form is called [[bell pepper]] in the US, capsicum in [[Australian English]] and [[Indian English]], and paprika in some other countries (although [[paprika]] can also refer to the powdered spice made from various capsicum fruit).

The original Mexican term, ''chilli'' (now ''chile'' in Spanish) came from [[Nahuatl]] word ''chilli'' or ''xilli'', referring to a huge ''Capsicum'' variety cultivated at least since 3000 BC, according to remains found in pottery from [[Puebla]] and [[Oaxaca]]<ref>Gil-Jurado, A. T., ''Il senso del chile e del piccante: dalla traduzione culturale alla rappresentazione visiva'' in (G. Manetti, ed.), ''Semiofood: Communication and Culture of Meal, Centro Scientifico Editore, Torino, Italy, 2006:34-58</ref>.

==Capsaicin==

{{details|Capsaicin}}

The fruit of ''most'' species of ''Capsicum'' contains [[capsaicin]] (methyl vanillyl nonenamide), a [[lipophilic]] chemical that can produce a strong burning sensation in the mouth (and, if not properly digested, [[anus]]) of the unaccustomed eater. Most [[mammal]]s find this unpleasant; however, birds are unaffected<ref>Mason, J. R., Bean, N. J., Shah, P. S. & Clark, L. ''Journal of Chemical Ecology'' 17,2539–2551 (1991)</ref><ref>Norman, D. M., Mason, J. R. & Clark, L. ''The Wilson Journal of Ornithology'' 104, 549–551 (1992).</ref>. Apparently, the secretion of capsaicin is an adaptation to protect the fruit from consumption by [[mammal]]s while the bright colors attract [[bird]]s that will spread the seeds{{Fact|date=September 2007}}. The amount of capsaicin in peppers is highly variable and dependent on [[genetics]], giving almost all types of peppers varied amounts of perceived heat. The only pepper without capsaicin is the [[bell pepper]]{{Fact|date=September 2007}}. [[Chili pepper]]s are of great importance in [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] medicine, and capsaicin is used in modern [[Western medicine]]—mainly in [[topical preparation]]s—as a [[circulatory]] [[stimulant]] and [[pain reliever]].

Although [[black pepper]] and [[Sichuan pepper]] cause similar burning sensations, they are caused by different substances—[[piperine]] and hydroxy-alpha-sanshool, respectively.

==Cuisine==
[[Image:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Chilli pepper]]s]]

''Capsicum'' fruits and peppers can be eaten raw or cooked. Those used in cooking are generally varieties of the ''C. annuum'' and ''C. frutescens'' species, though a few others are used as well. They are suitable for stuffing with fillings such as cheese, meat or rice.

They are also frequently used both chopped and raw in salads, or cooked in stir-fries or other mixed dishes. They can be sliced into strips and fried, roasted whole or in pieces, or chopped and incorporated into salsas or other sauces.

They can be preserved by drying or pickling. Dried peppers may be reconstituted whole, or processed into flakes or powders. Pickled or marinated peppers are frequently added to sandwiches or salads. Extracts can be made and incorporated into hot sauces.

According to Richard Pankhurst, ''C. frutescens'' (known as ''barbaré'') was so important to the [[Cuisine of Ethiopia|national cuisine of Ethiopia]], at least as early as the 19th century, "that it was cultivated extensively in the warmer areas wherever the soil was suitable."<ref>Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University, 1968), p. 193.</ref> Although it was grown in every province, ''barbaré'' was especially extensive in [[Yejju]], "which supplied much of [[Shewa|Showa]] as well as other neighboring provinces." He singles out the upper [[Golima river]] valley as being almost entirely devoted to the cultivation of this plant, where thousands of acres were devoted to the plant and it was harvested year round.<ref>Pankhurst, ''Economic History'', p. 194.</ref>

In [[2005]], a poll of 2,000 people revealed the capsicum pepper to be [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] 4th favourite culinary vegetable.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==Varieties==
Many varieties of the same species can be used in many different ways; for example, ''C. annuum'' includes the "bell pepper" variety, which is sold in both its immature green state and its red, yellow or orange ripe state.
[[Image:Peppermix.jpg|thumb|left|An arrangement of [[jalapeño]], [[banana pepper|banana]], [[chili pepper|chili]], and [[habanero]] peppers]]

This same species has other varieties as well, such as the Anaheim chiles often used for stuffing, the dried Ancho chile used to make [[chili powder]], the mild-to-hot [[Jalapeño]], and the smoked, ripe Jalapeño, known as a [[Chipotle]].

Most of the capsaicin in a pepper is found in the interior ribs that divide the chambers of the fruit, and to which the seeds are attached. At the stem end of the pod, glands secrete the capsaicin, which then spreads throughout, but is concentrated on the ribs and seeds. The amount varies very significantly by variety, and is measured in [[Scoville scale|Scoville heat unit]]s (SHU).

==Synonyms and common names==
[[Image:Compact orange pepper plants.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Compact orange Capsicum plants]]

The name given to the fruits varies between English-speaking countries.

In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[India]], heatless species are called "capsicums" while hot ones are called "chilli/chillies" (double L). The term "bell peppers" is rarely used, usually in reference to C. annuum and other varieties which look like a "capsicum" or bell but are fairly hot.

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and [[Canada]], the heatless varieties are called "peppers", "sweet peppers" or "capsicums" (or "green peppers," "red peppers," etc) while the hot ones are "chilli/chillies" (double L) or "chilli peppers".

In the [[United States]], the common heatless species is referred to as "bell peppers," "sweet peppers," "red/green/etc peppers," or simply "peppers", while the hot species are collectively called "chile/chiles," "chili/chilies," or "chili/chile peppers" (one L only), "hot peppers", or named as a specific variety (e.g., [[banana pepper]]). In many [[midwest]]ern regions of the United States the Sweet Bell Pepper is commonly called a [[mango]].[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/mango] With the modern advent of fresh tropical fruit importers exposing a wider latitude of individuals to the tropical fruit variety of the mango, this usage is becoming archaic. However many menus still call a stuffed bell pepper a mango.

The name "pepper" came into use because the plants were hot in the same sense as the condiment [[black pepper]], ''[[Piper (genus)|Piper]] nigrum''. But there is no botanical relationship with this plant, nor with [[Sichuan Pepper]].
[[Image:Thai peppers.jpg|left|thumb|[[Thai pepper]]]]

In Spanish-speaking countries there are many different names for each variety and preparation. In [[Mexico]] the term ''chile'' is used for "hot peppers" while the heatless varieties are called ''pimiento'' (masculine form of the word for pepper which is ''pimienta''). Several other countries, such as [[Chile]], whose name is unrelated, [[Perú]], and [[Argentina]], use ''ají''. In [[Spain]], heatless varieties are called ''pimiento'' and hot varieties ''guindilla''.

In Indian English, the word "capsicum" is used exclusively for bell pepper. All other varieties of chili peppers are called chilli. In northern [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], bell pepper is also commonly called "Shimla Mirch" in the native languages. [[Shimla]] incidentally is a popular hill-station in India (and "Mirch" means chilli in native languages).

== References ==

<references/>

==See also==
*[[Capsaicin#Medical]]

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{commonscat|Capsicum}}
{{Wikispecies|Capsicum}}
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/med-aro/factsheets/CAPSICUM_PEPPER.html Capsicum pepper factsheet] as of 2002-06-10


{{Herbs & spices}}


[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Solanaceae]]
[[Category:Chili peppers]]
[[Category:Vegetable-like fruits]]

Capparis

2009-06-05T16:19:08Z

59.92.109.153:

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capparis (Greek, caper, said by some to have been derived from the Arabic name of the plant). Capparidaceae. Caper-bush, or Caper-tree. Greenhouse plants North, and suited to the open in Florida and California.
Trees and shrubs, with simple lvs.: sepals 4, rarely 5; petals usually 4; stamens usually many, inserted on the receptacle, the filaments thread-like and free; ovary long-stalked, 1—4-celled, with many ovules.— More than 150 species distributed throughout the warm regions of the earth. Differing from Cleome and most other cult, genera of the family in having baccate, not capsular, fr.
Capers are pickles mode by preserving the flower- buds of C. spinosa, a straggling shrub which grows out of old walls, rocks, and rubbish in Mediterranean regions and India. Also rarely cultivated as a greenhouse flowering shrub. Propagation is by cuttings of ripe wood, under a bell-jar, in greenhouses, and by seeds South.
C. acuminata, Lindl. St. shrubby, with flexuose, smooth branches: lvs. petiolate ovate-lanceolate, acuminate: fls. large, solitary, white, the conspicuous stamens 3-4 times as long as the petals. China. B.R. 1320. Wilhelm miller. N.Taylor.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capparis Mitchellii

2009-06-05T16:18:35Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capparis Mitchellii, Lindl. A much-branched shrub, usually very spiny, and more or less densely tomentose: lvs. ovate-oblong, 1-1½ in. long, narrowed into a short petiole: fls. few, axillary, white or yellowish, followed by a tomentose globular berry 2 in. diam. Sand plains of Austral.—Suitable for dry places outdoors in S. Calif.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capparis spinosa

2009-06-05T16:17:49Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capparis spinosa, Linn. Fig. 785. Spiny shrub, 3 ft. high, often straggling and vine-like: lvs. roundish or ovate, deciduous: fls. borne singly, alternately, and fading before noon; sepals 4; petals 4, oblong, clawed, wavy, white,1½ in. long; stamens 40-50; filaments purple above, perhaps the chief beauty of the plant. B.M. 291. —What seems to be the long style with a short unopened stigma, is really the elongated peduncle or torus topped by the pistil, which has no style and a minute stigma. Var. rupestris (C. rupestris, Sibth. & Smith) is a spineless form.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Capparis

2009-06-05T16:17:17Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
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| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Capparis (Greek, caper, said by some to have been derived from the Arabic name of the plant). Capparidaceae. Caper-bush, or Caper-tree. Greenhouse plants North, and suited to the open in Florida and California.
Trees and shrubs, with simple lvs.: sepals 4, rarely 5; petals usually 4; stamens usually many, inserted on the receptacle, the filaments thread-like and free; ovary long-stalked, 1—4-celled, with many ovules.— More than 150 species distributed throughout the warm regions of the earth. Differing from Cleome and most other cult, genera of the family in having baccate, not capsular, fr.
Capers are pickles mode by preserving the flower- buds of C. spinosa, a straggling shrub which grows out of old walls, rocks, and rubbish in Mediterranean regions and India. Also rarely cultivated as a greenhouse flowering shrub. Propagation is by cuttings of ripe wood, under a bell-jar, in greenhouses, and by seeds South.

{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Cape bulbs

2009-06-05T16:16:28Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Cape bulbs. A name applied to bulbous and bulb-like plants native to South Africa. They are dry-region plants, and often bloom with us in summer and autumn. Some of the leading genera are Amary llis, Brunsvigia, Nerine, Ixia, Tritonia, Watsonia. See Bulbs.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Cannabis

2009-06-05T16:15:30Z

59.92.109.153:

{{Inc|
Cannabis (the ancient Greek name). Moraceae. Hemp. A widely cultivated fiber plant, and also used occasionally as an ornamental subject, being grown from seeds and treated as a half-hardy annual.
Hemp is dioecious: staminate fls. in axillary panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens and no petals; pistillate fls. in short spikes, with 1 sepal folding about the ovary: lvs. digitate, with 5-7 nearly linear, coarse- toothed lfts.: fr. a hard and brittle achene. C. sativa, Linn., probably native in Cent. Asia, is now escaped in many parts of the world: tall, rough and strong- smelling, 8-12 ft.: lfts. 5-11, linear-lanceolate, toothed, the upper lvs. alternate and the others more or less opposite. Only one species, but various forms have received specific names. In gardens, the form known as C. gigantea is commonest; this reaches a height of 10 ft. and more. The seeds are usually sown where the plants are to stand; but if quick effects are wanted, they may be started indoors in pots or boxes. Hemp makes excellent screens in remote places. It thrives best in a rich rather moist soil. For field cult, for fiber (which is derived from the inner bark), see Cyclo. Amer. Agric., Vol. II, p. 377. L. H. B.
C. bicolor, Lem. Distinguished from the above by the entire lvs. which are shorter, about 1 in. long, and the solitary fls. with a short, yellow tube, the limb not fringed. The fls. droop, but not vertically. Peru. B.M. 4729. F.S. 4:343. Probably less desirable than the above.—C. pyrifolia Juss. Lvs. generally broader and more toothed than in C. bicolor: fls. as many as 17, in an erect, terminal, compound corymb; calyx red-tipped, nearly half as long as the yellow corolla-tube; corolla about 1 ¼ in. long, with a white limb; stamens long, exserted. Peru. B.M. 4386. F.S. 4:383. Wilhelm MII.LER.N. Taylor.
}}
{{wiktionary}}{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cannabis
| image = Cannabis sativa Koehler drawing.jpg
| image_width = 203px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Urticales]]
| familia = [[Cannabaceae]]
| genus = '''''Cannabis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
[[Cannabis sativa|''Cannabis sativa'' L.]]<br />
[[Cannabis indica|''Cannabis indica Lam.'']]<br />
[[Cannabis ruderalis|''Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.'']]
}}
:''This article is about the plant g enus ''Cannabis''. For use as a psychoactive drug, see [[Cannabis (drug)]]. For use as a therapeutic drug, see [[Medical Cannabis]]. For non-drug cultivation and uses, see [[Hemp]].''

'''Cannabis''' is a genus of [[flowering plant]]s that includes three putative species, ''Cannabis sativa'' L., ''Cannabis indica'' Lam., and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. These three taxa are indigenous to [[central Asia]] and surrounding regions. Industrial [[hemp]] products are made from ''Cannabis'' plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of [[THC]] (Δ<sup>9</sup>- tetrahydrocannabinol), the [[psychoactive]] molecule that produces the "high" associated with [[marijuana]]. The crude drug consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including [[hashish]] and hash oil are also produced<ref name=”erowid”>Erowid. 2006. [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_basics.shtml ''Cannabis'' Basics]. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> The cultivation and possession of ''Cannabis'' for recreational use is outlawed in most countries.

== Description ==
''Cannabis'' is an [[Annual plant|annual]], [[dioecious]], [[Flowering plant|flowering]] [[herb]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[Leaf shape|palmately compound]], with [[serrate]] [[leaflet]]s. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite [[Phyllotaxis|leaf arrangement]] and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.

''Cannabis'' usually has [[Plant sexuality#Terminology|imperfect]] [[flowers]] with [[Stamen|staminate]] "male" and [[pistil]]late "female" flowers occurring on separate plants,<ref name=”lebel1997”>Lebel-Hardenack, S. and S. R. Grant. 1997. Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants. ''Trends in Plant Science'' '''2'''(4): 130–136.</ref> although [[Hermaphrodite#In plants|hermaphroditic]] flowers sometimes occur.<ref name="moliterni2005">Cristiana Moliterni, V. M., L. Cattivelli, P. Ranalli. and G. Mandolino. 2005. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/t491042240h422v8/?p=702c2acbac6445a095ebaf968bca427d&pi=11 The sexual differentiation of ''Cannabis sativa'' L.: A morphological and molecular study]. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1-2): 95-106. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Male flowers are borne on loose [[panicle]]s, and female flowers are borne on [[raceme]]s.<ref name="bouquet1950"> Bouquet, R. J. 1950. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_4_page003.html ''Cannabis'']. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> It is not unusual for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers in some strains, a condition called monoecy.<ref name="mignoni1999">Mignoni, G. 1999. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1997-01-01_1_page003.html ''Cannabis'' as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe]. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved on 5 Oct 2006</ref> On [[monoecious]] plants, flowers of both sexes may occur on separate [[inflorescence]]s, or on the same inflorescence.<ref name="moliterni2005"/>

[[Cannabinoids]], [[terpenoids]], and other volatile compounds are secreted by glandular [[tricho
mes]] that occur most abundantly on the floral [[calyx]]es and [[bract]]s of female plants.<ref name="mahlberg2001a">Mahlberg, Paul G. and Eun Soo Kim. 2001. [http://www.hempreport.com/issues/17/malbody17.html THC (tetrahyrdocannabinol) accumulation in glands of ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''The Hemp Report'' '''3'''(17). Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

All known strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]]<ref name="clarke1991a">Clarke, Robert C. 1991. ''Marijuana Botany'', 2nd ed. Ronin Publishing, California. ISBN 0-914171-78-X</ref> and produce "[[seed]]s" that are technically called [[achene]]s.<ref name="small1975c">Small, E. 1975. Morphological variation of achenes of ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''53'''(10): 978-987.</ref> Most strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[short day plant]]s,<ref name=clarke1991a/> with the possible exception of ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' (= ''C. ruderalis''), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be [[Day neutral plant|day-neutral]].

''Cannabis'' is naturally [[Ploidy|diploid]], having a [[chromosome]] complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.<ref name=”small1972a”>Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref>
Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant which includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north west of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried leaves (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hash oil [¹]. In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.

== Taxonomy ==
The genus ''Cannabis'' was formerly placed in the [[Nettle]] ([[Urticaceae]]) or [[Mulberry]] ([[Moraceae]]) family, but is now considered along with [[Hop (plant)|hops]] (''Humulus'' sp.) to belong to the [[Hemp]] family ([[Cannabaceae]]).<ref name=schultes2001a>Schultes, R. E., A. Hofmann, and C. Rätsch. 2001. The nectar of delight. In: ''Plants of the Gods'' 2nd ed., Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont, pp. 92-101. ISBN 0-89281-979-0</ref> Recent [[phylogenetic]] studies based on [[cpDNA]] [[restriction site]] analysis and [[gene sequencing]] strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the [[Celtidaceae]] [[clade]], and that the two families should be merged to form a single [[monophyletic]] group.<ref name=song2001>Song, B.-H., Wang, X.-Q., Li, F.-Z., and Hong, D.-Y. 2001. [http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/9v01xfaw7t8qx288/?p=db82cdfc53554cc687fd999a5c7e371f&pi=8 Further evidence for paraphyly of the Celtidaceae from the chloroplast gene ''matK'']. ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'' '''228'''(1-2): 107-115.</ref><ref name=sytsma2002>Sytsma, K. J., Morawetz, J., Pires, J. C., Nepokroeff, M., Conti, E., Zjhra, M., Hall, J. C., and Chase, M. W. 2002. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/89/9/1531 Urticalean Rosids: circumscription, Rosid ancestry, and phylogenetics based on ''rbcL'', ''trnL-F'', and ''ndh-F'' sequences]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''89'''(9): 1531-1546.</ref>

Various types of ''Cannabis'' have been described, and classified as [[species]], [[subspecies]], or [[Variety (biology)|varieties]]:<ref name="small1975b">Small, Ernest. 1975. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1975-01-01_3_page002.html American law and the species problem in ''Cannabis'': Science and semantics]. ''Bulletin on Narcotics'' '''27'''(3): 1-20. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>
*plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types
*plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types
*escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

''Cannabis'' plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol ([[CBD]]) and/or Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol ([[THC]]), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, ''Cannabis'' plants have been categorized by their chemical [[phenotype]] or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.<ref name="small1973a">Small, E. and H. D. Beckstead. 1973. Common cannabinoid phenotypes in 350 stocks of ''Cannabis''. ''Lloydia'' '''36''': 144–165.</ref> Although overall [[cannabinoid]] production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.<ref name="meijer2003a">Etienne P. M. de Meijer, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F<sub>1</sub>) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.<ref name=small1973a/><ref name="hillig2004a">Hillig, Karl W. and Paul G. Mahlberg. 2004. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/966 A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''91'''(6): 966-975. Retrieved on 22 Feb 2007</ref>

[[Image:Marijuana.jpg|left|thumb|Leaf of a ''Cannabis'' plant.]]
[[Image:Cannabis-vegetative-growth-00003.jpg|right|thumb|Top of ''Cannabis'' plant in vegetative growth stage.]]
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of ''Cannabis'' constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a [[species]].<ref name=”small1979a”>Small, E. 1979. Fundamental aspects of the species problem in biology. In: ''The Species Problem in Cannabis'', vol. 1: Science. Corpus Information Services, Toronto, Canada, pp. 5-63. ISBN 0-919217-11-7</ref> One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<ref name="glossary">Rieger, R., A. Michaelis, and M. M. Green. 1991. ''Glossary of Genetics'', 5th ed. Springer-Verlag, pp. 458-459. ISBN 0-387-52054-6</ref> Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.<ref name=glossary/> [[Reproductive isolation|Physiological barriers to reproduction]] are not known to occur within ''Cannabis'', and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.<ref name=”small1972a”>Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref> However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled ''Cannabis'' gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.<ref name=”hillig2005a”>Hillig, Karl W. 2005. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/gres/2005/00000052/00000002/00004452 Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52'''(2): 161-180. Retrieved on 23 F
eb 2007</ref> It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.<ref name="small1975a"> Small, E. 1975. [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php On toadstool soup and legal species of marihuana]. ''Plant Science Bulletin'' '''21'''(3): 34-39. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="emboden1981a">Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus ''Cannabis'' and the correct use of taxonomic categories. ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs'' '''13''': 15–21.</ref><ref name="schultes1980a">Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. ''Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens''. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, pp. 82–116. ISBN 0-398-03863-5</ref>

=== Early classifications ===
The ''Cannabis'' genus was first [[Scientific classification|classified]] using the "modern" system of taxonomic [[Binomial nomenclature|nomenclature]] by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.<ref name="linnaeus1753">Linnaeus, C. 1753. ''Species Plantarum'' '''2''': 1027. Salvius, Stockholm. [Facsimile edition, 1957-1959. Ray Society, London, U.K.]</ref> He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named ''Cannabis sativa'' L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist [[Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck]] published a description of a second species of ''Cannabis'', which he named ''Cannabis indica'' Lam.<ref name="lamarck1785">de Lamarck, J.B. 1785. ''Encyclopédie Méthodique de Botanique'', vol. 1, pt. 2. Paris, France, pp. 694-695</ref> Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described ''C. indica'' as having poorer fiber quality than ''C. sativa'', but greater utility as an [[Psychoactive drug|inebriant]]. Additional ''Cannabis'' species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names ''Cannabis chinensis'' Delile, and ''Cannabis gigantea'' Delile ex Vilmorin.<ref name="small1976a">Small, E. and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for ''Cannabis''. ''Taxon'' '''25'''(4): 405–435.</ref> However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where ''Cannabis'' continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name ''Cannabis indica'' was listed in various [[Pharmacopoeia]]s, and was widely used to designate ''Cannabis'' suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.<ref name=”winek1977”>Winek, C. L. 1977. Some historical aspects of marijuana. ''Clinical Toxicology'' '''10'''(2): 243-253.</ref>

=== 20th Century ===
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that [[ruderal]] ''Cannabis'' in central Russia is either a variety of ''C. sativa'' or a separate species, and proposed ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''ruderalis'' Janisch. and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. as alternative names.<ref name=small1975b/> In 1929, renown plant explorer [[Nikolai Vavilov]] assigned wild or feral populations of ''Cannabis'' in Afghanistan to ''C. indica'' Lam. var. ''kafiristanica'' Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''spontanea'' Vav.<ref name="hillig2004a">Hillig, Karl W. and Paul G. Mahlberg. 2004. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/966 A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''91'''(6): 966-975. Retrieved on 22 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=small1976a/> In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. Within ''C. sativa'' they recognized two subspecies: '
'C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''culta'' Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''spontanea'' (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two ''C. sativa'' subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies ''culta''. However, they did not divide ''C. indica'' into subspecies or varieties.<ref name=small1975b/><ref name="serebriakova1940">Serebriakova T. Ya. and I. A. Sizov. 1940. Cannabinaceae Lindl. In: Vavilov N. I. (ed.), ''Kulturnaya Flora SSSR'', vol. 5, Moscow-Leningrad, USSR, pp. 1-53. [in Russian]</ref> This excessive splitting of ''C. sativa'' proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

[[Image:Cannabis ruderalis.jpg|right|thumb|Ruderal ''Cannabis''.]]
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of ''Cannabis'' took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting ''Cannabis'' in the United States and Canada specifically named products of ''C. sativa'' as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized ''Cannabis'' material may not have been ''C. sativa'', and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.<ref name=small1975a/><ref name=emboden1981a/> The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.<ref name=”watts2006”>Watts, G. 2006. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/332/7534/175.pdf ''Cannabis'' confusions]. BMJ 332: 175-176. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small<ref name=”smallbiography”>[http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html Ernest Small (biography)]. National Research Council Canada. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> and American taxonomist [[Arthur Cronquist]] published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of ''Cannabis'' with two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'', and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (Lam.) Small & Cronq.<ref name=small1976a/> The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' was presumably [[Artificial selection|selected]] for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant ''Cannabis'', and ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' var. ''kafiristanica'' (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of [[phenotypic]] characters.<ref name=small1973a/><ref name=small1976a/><ref name="small1976b">Small, E., P. Y. Jui, and L. P. Lefkovitch. 1976. A numerical taxonomic analysis of ''Cannabis'' with special reference to species delimitation. ''Systematic Botany'' '''1'''(1): 67-84.</ref>

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist [[Richard E. Schultes]] and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'' in the 1970s, and concluded that stable [[morphological]] differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and ''C. ruderalis.''<ref name=”schultes1974a”>Schultes, R. E., W. M. Klein, T. Plowman, and T. E. Lockwood. 1974. ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''23''': 337–367.</ref><ref name=”anderson1974a”>[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard Uni
versity Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''24''': 29–36. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”anderson1980a”>[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''28''': 61–69. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=emboden1974a>Emboden, W. A. 1974. ''Cannabis'' – a polytypic genus. ''Economic Botany'' '''28''': 304-310.</ref> For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that ''Cannabis'' is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name="schultes1970a">Schultes, R. E. 1970. Random thoughts and queries on the botany of ''Cannabis''. In: Joyce, C. R. B. and Curry, S. H. (eds), ''The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis''. J. & A. Churchill, London, pp. 11-38.</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, ''C. sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''C. indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''C. ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in [[central Asia]]. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by ''Cannabis'' aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug [[cannabis strains|strains]] from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.<ref name="clarke2005a">[http://www.norml.org.nz/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=588 Interview with Robert Connell Clarke]. 1 Jan 2005. NORML, New Zealand. Retrieved on 19 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Ongoing research ===
[[Molecular biology|Molecular analytical techniques]] developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on [[History of plant systematics#Evolutionary systematics|evolutionary systematics]]. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA ([[RAPD]]) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of ''Cannabis'', primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.<ref name=”faeti1996a”>Faeti, V., G. Mandolino, and P. Ranalli. 1996. Genetic diversity of ''Cannabis sativa'' germplasm based on RAPD markers. ''Plant Breeding'' '''115''': 367–370.</ref><ref name=”forapani2001a”>Forapani, S., A. Carboni, C. Paoletti, V. M. Christiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2001. [http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/41/6/1682 Comparison of hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) varieties using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA markers]. ''Crop Science'' '''41''': 1682-1689. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="mandolino2002a">Mandolino, G. and Ranalli, P. 2002. [https://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=WHMFTL5P4HRL8KGL589LPHULAS5X554F&ID=8157 The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp]. ''Journal of Industrial Hemp'' '''7'''(1): 7-23. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”gilmore2003a”>Gilmore S., R. Peakall, and J. Roberts. 2003. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-478RNWR-7&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F09%2F2003&_alid=541458074&_rdoc=2&_fmt=summary&_orig=search&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=196333f36d13d0b0bacdfa4dbbfd5abe Short tandem repeats (STR) DNA markers are hypervariable and informative in ''Cannabis sativa'': implications for forensic investigations]. ''Forensic Science International'' '''131'''(1): 65-74. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”kojoka2002a”>Kojoka M., O. Iida, Y. Makino, S. Sekita, and M. Satake. 2002. DNA fingerprinting of ''Cannabis sativa'' using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification. ''Planta Medica'' '''68'''(1): 60-63.</ref> Dutch ''Cannabis'' researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.<ref name="meijer2003a">Etienne P. M. de Meijer, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti,
V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the ''Cannabis'' gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species.

Karl W. Hillig, a [[graduate]] student in the laboratory of long-time ''Cannabis'' researcher Paul G. Mahlberg<ref name=”mahlbergNAIHC”>[http://www.naihc.org/MahlbergArticles.html Dr. Paul G. Mahlberg's ''Cannabis'' Research]. North American Industrial Hemp Council. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]], conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and [[chemotaxonomic]] variation among 157 ''Cannabis'' accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their ''Cannabis'' [[germplasm]] collection. They used [[gas chromatography]] to determine cannabinoid content and to infer [[allele]] frequencies of the [[gene]] that controls CBD and THC production, within the studied populations.<ref name=hillig2004a/> Hillig and Mahlberg concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species, but not ''C. ruderalis.'' The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to ''C. sativa''. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to ''C. indica.'' In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was submitted ahead of his 2004 manuscript with Mahlberg, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and (tentatively) ''C. ruderalis''.<ref name=”hillig2005a”>Hillig, Karl W. 2005. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/gres/2005/00000052/00000002/00004452 Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52'''(2): 161-180. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> In his doctoral [[dissertation]] published the same year, Hillig stated that [[principal components analysis]] of [[phenotypic]] (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that [[canonical analysis|canonical variates analysis]] resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.<ref name=”hillig2005b”>Hillig, Karl William. 2005. A systematic investigation of ''Cannabis''. Doctoral Dissertation. Department of Biology, Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana. Published by [http://wwwlib.umi.com/dxweb/gateway UMI]. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Another paper published by Hillig on chemotaxonomic variation in the [[terpenoid]] content of the essential oil of ''Cannabis'' revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in their collection had relatively high levels of certain [[sesquiterpene]] alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.<ref name="hillig2004b">Hillig, Karl W. 2004. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4R-4CPD4SG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9e491613fa59a0a2cb5b5a3f83cd3118 A chemotaxonomic analysis of terpenoid variation in ''Cannabis'']. ''Biochemical Systematics and Ecology'' '''32''': 875-891. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat ''C. ruderalis'' as a separate species from ''C. sativa'' at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

As of 2007, most taxonomy web sites continue to list ''Cannabis'' as a single species.<ref name="GRIN">USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2034 Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)], National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="APNI">Barlow, Snow. 2006. [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Cannabis.html Sorting ''Cannabis'' names]. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. The University of Melbourne. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="ITIS">[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=19109 Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)]. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="taxonomicon">[http://www.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=6455 The Taxonomicon]. Universal Taxonomic Services. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Popular usage ===
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type ''Cannabis''. ''Cannabis'' aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type ''Cannabis'' often describe the ancestry or gross [[phenotype|phenotypic]] characteristics of [[cultivar]]s by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

In September of 2005, [[New Scientist]] reported that researchers at the Canberra Insitute of Technology had identified a new type of ''Cannabis'' based on analysis of [[mitochondria]]l and [[chloroplast]] DNA.<ref name=”newscientist”>2005. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725175.200 Rasta lends its name to a third type of ''Cannabis'']. ''New Scientist'' '''2517''': 12. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal ''Forensic Science International''. As of 25 Feb 2007 the article is listed as "in press," and there is no mention in the abstract of "Rasta."<ref name=gilmore2007a>Gilmore, S., R. Peakall, and J. Robertson. 2007. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-4N1SJSG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=02%2F12%2F2007&_alid=541458074&_rdoc=1&_fmt=summary&_orig=search&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=18b36b5a075a1cf95491de46a56b6c7f Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of ''Cannabis sativa'']. ''Forensic Science International''. In Press. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Wild cannabis ===
Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[Morocco]]. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' shows great local variation; for example, in warm places, it can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower branch bears a seed. The wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica''.

In many areas, wild or naturalized populations of ''Cannabis'' are considered [[invasive species]], and are often targeted by government-sponsored eradication programmes.

== Reproduction ==
=== Breeding systems ===
[[Image:CannabisSeeds.jpg|right|thumb|Some ''Cannabis sativa'' seeds]]
''Cannabis'' is predominantly [[dioecious]],<ref name=clarke1991a/><ref name="ainsworth2000">Ainsworth, C. 2000. [http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/2/211 Boys and girls come out to play: the molecular biology of dioecious plants]. ''Annals of Botany'' '''86'''(2): 211-221. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> although many monoecious varieties have been described.<ref name="meijer1999a">de Meijer, E. P. M. 1999. ''Cannabis'' germplasm resources. In: Ranalli P. (ed.). ''Advances in Hemp Research'', Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, pp. 131-151. ISBN 1-56022-872-5</ref> Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.<ref name="mignoni1999"/><ref name="schumann1999">Schumann, E., A. Peil, and W. E. Weber. 1999. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/j0581734t3222674/?p=17537b5e5396490d82c1dd09c0da993d&pi=9 Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) accessions]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''46'''(4): 399-407. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="ranalli2004a">Ranalli, P. 2004. Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1): 121-131.</ref> Many populations have been described as sexually labile.<ref name="hirata1924">Hirata, K. 1924. Sex reversal in hemp. ''Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry'' '''16''': 145-168.</ref><ref name="schaffner1931">Schaffner, J. H. 1931. The fluctuation curve of sex reversal in staminate hemp plants induced by photoperiodicity. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''18'''(6): 424-430.</ref><ref name="mandolino2002a"/>

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, ''Cannabis'' exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.<ref name="truta2002a">Truta, E., E. Gille, E. Toth, and M. Maniu. 2002. [http://jag.igr.poznan.pl/2002-Volume-43/4/pdf/2002_Volume_43_4-451-462.pdf Biochemical differences in ''Cannabis sativa'' L. depending on sexual phenotype]. ''Journal of Applied Genetics'' '''43'''(4): 451-462. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Sinsemilla|female plants]] are preferred. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate between licit crops of monoecious hemp and illicit dioecious drug crops.<ref name="mignoni1999"/>

=== Mechanisms of sex determination ===

''Cannabis'' has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of [[sex determination]] among the dioecious plants.<ref name="truta2002a"/> Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in ''Cannabis''.

Based on studies of sex reversal in [[hemp]], it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an [[XY sex-determination system]] is present.<ref name="hirata1924"/> At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The [[X0 sex-determination system|X:A system]] was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.<ref name=”bridges1925”>Bridges, C. B. 1925. Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes. ''American Naturalist'' '''59''': 127-137.</ref> Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,<ref name="schaffner1929">Schaffner, J. H. 1929. Heredity and sex. ''Ohio Journal of Science'' '''29'''(1): 289-300.</ref> and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.<ref name="schaffner1931"/>

Since then, many different types of sex determination system have been discovered, particularly in plants.<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.<ref name=”negrutiu2001”> Negrutiu, I., B. Vyskot, N. Barbacar, S. Georgiev, and F. Moneger. 2001. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1540173 Dioecious plants; a key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution]. ''Plant Physiology'' '''127'''(4): 418-424.</ref>

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for ''Cannabis''. Ainsworth<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage-type."

[[Image:Cannabis indica Selkem.jpg|left|thumb|''Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of ''Cannabis'']]
The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a [[karyotype]]. ''Cannabis'' was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped, however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see [[Cytogenetics#History|History of Cytogenetics]]). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious 'Kentucky' hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.<ref name="menzel1964">Menzel, Margaret Y. 1964. Meiotic chromosomes of monoecious Kentucky hemp (''Cannabis sativa''). ''Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club'' '''91'''(3): 193-205.</ref> According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of ''Cannabis'' had been published as of 1996.<ref name=”hong1996a”>Shao Hong and Robert C. Clarke. 1996. [http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha03207.html Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China]. ''Journal of the International Hemp Association'' '''3'''(2): 55-60. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.<ref name="peil2003">Peil, A., H. Flachowsky, E. Schumann, and W. E. Weber. 2003. Sex-linked AFLP markers indicate a pseudoautosomal region in hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.). ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''107'''(1): 102-109.</ref>

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors<ref name=”sakamoto1995a”> Sakamoto, K., K. Shimomura, Y. Komeda, H. Kamada, and S. Satoh. 1995. [http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/8/1549 A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Plant & Cell Physiology'' '''36'''(8): 1549-1554. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”sakamoto2005a”> Sakamoto, K., T. Abe, T. Matsuyama, S. Yoshida, N. Ohmido, K. Fukui, and S. Satoh. 2005. [http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet&journal=gen&volume=48&calyLang=eng&articleFile=g05-056.pdf RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genome'' '''48'''(5): 931-936. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> have used [[RAPD]] to isolate several [[genetic marker]] sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and [[Amplified fragment length polymorphism|AFLP]].<ref name=”torjek2002”>Törjék, O., N. Bucherna, E. Kiss, H. Homoki, Z. Finta-Korpelová, I. Bócsa, I. Nagy, and L. E. Heszky. 2002. Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp. ''Euphytica'' '''127''': 209-218.</ref><ref name=mandolino2002a/><ref name=meijer2003a/> Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating that "It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."<ref name=ainsworth2000/>

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref name=”tanurdzic2004”>Tanurdzic, M. and J. A. Banks. 2004. Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants. ''Plant Cell'' '''16''' (suppl.): S61-71.</ref> Many researchers have suggested that sex in ''Cannabis'' is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.<ref name=schaffner1931/> Ainsworth reviews that treatment with [[auxin]] and [[ethylene]] have feminizing effects, and that treatment with [[cytokinins]] and [[gibberellins]] have masculinizing effects.<ref name=ainsworth2000/> It has been reported that sex can be reversed in ''Cannabis'' using chemical treatment.<ref name=”mohanram1982”>Mohan Ram, H. Y., and R. Sett. 1982. Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female ''Cannabis sativa'' plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex. ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''62''': 369-375.</ref>

== Aspects of ''Cannabis'' production and use ==
[[Image:Greendays01.jpg|190px|right|thumb|''Cannabis'' field seized by authorities]]

*[[Medical Cannabis]] discusses its use as a medication.
*[[Cannabis (drug)]] discusses its use as a recreational [[drug]].
*[[Spiritual use of cannabis]] discusses sacramental and religious use.
*[[Hemp]] discusses its uses as a source of [[housing]], [[Vegetable oil|oil]], [[food]], [[Fiber crop|fibers]], and industrial materials.
*[[Cannabis (drug) cultivation]] discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes
*[[Legal issues of Cannabis]] focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using cannabis as a drug.
**[[Cannabis rescheduling in the United States]]
**[[Drug policy of the Netherlands]]
*[[Health issues and the effects of cannabis]] discusses the [[pharmacology]], physical, and mental effects of ''Cannabis'' when used as drug.

== Etymology ==
The plant name '''cannabis''' is of [[Semitic]] origin: [English < Latin '''cannabis''' < Greek '''κάνναβις''' (kánnabis) < Hebrew '''קַנַּבּוֹס''' (qannabbôs) < '''קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם''' (qěnēh bośem)]; However, the earlier [[Sumerian]] language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

Raphael Mechoulam and co-workers at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem suggest an alternative etymology for cannabis: Greek '''cannabis''' < Arabic '''kunnab''' < Syriac '''qunnappa''' < Hebrew '''pannag''' (= '''bhanga''' in Sanscrit and '''bang''' in Persian). They explain that in Hebrew, only the consonants form the basis of a word and the letters p and b are frequently interchangeable. The authors think it probable that pannag, mentioned in the Bible by the prophet Ezekiel (5, 22), is in fact ''Cannabis''.<ref name=mechoulam1991>Mechoulam, R., W. A. Devane, A. Breuer, and J. Zahalka. 1991. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T0N-475JC0F-323&_user=10&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F1991&_rdoc=2&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%234867%231991%23999599996%23357918%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=4867&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=41&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f0c38ded781d4b6a825f283045e5666e A random walk through a ''Cannabis'' field]. ''Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior'' '''40'''(3): 461-464.</ref>

The Biblical Hebrew term ''qěnēh bośem'', literally "reed of balm", probably<ref name="labarre1980">[[Weston La Barre]]. 1980. ''Culture in Context; Selected Writings of Weston Labarre''. Duke University Press. (source not confirmed)</ref> refers to cannabis according to some etymologists,<ref
name="bookofgrass">Benetowa, Sara = ([[Sula Benet]]). 1936. Tracing one word through different languages. Institute of Anthropological Sciences, Warsaw. Reprinted 1967 In: ''The Book of Grass''. George Andrews and Simon Vinkenoog (eds.) Grove Press, New York, "pp. 15-18.</ref> but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus, or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues.<ref name=”low1924”>Immanuel Löw. 1924-1934. ''Flora der Juden'', vol. I-IV. Reprinted 1967. Hildeshein: Georg Olms (source not confirmed)</ref> The Hebrew Bible mentions it in [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:23|Exodus 30:23]] where God commands [[Moses]] to make a holy oil of [[myrrh]], [[cinnamon]], ''qěnēh bośem'' and [[cassia]] to anoint the [[Ark of the Covenant]] and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people ([[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:31|Exodus 30:31-33]]) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood ([[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:30|Exodus 30:30]]).

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" ''qānēh'' as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Isaiah#43:24|Isaiah 43:24]], [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Jeremiah#6:20|Jeremiah 6:20]], [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Ezekiel#27:19|Ezekiel 27:19]] and [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Song of Solomon#4:14|Song of Songs 4:14]]. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from ''qěnēh'' (the noun construct form of ''qāneh'') means a "reed" or "cane" and ''bośem'' means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name ''qannabbôs'' from "reed of balm" ''qěnēh bośem'' as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "[[sweet flag|calamus]]", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek [[Septuagint]] translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word ''qěnēh bośem'' appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form ''qannabbôs'', which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek ''kalamos''), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The [[Scythian]] term ''cannabis'' probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass<ref name=bookofgrass/> as saying:

<blockquote>''The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic 'kanbos' and the Scythian 'cannabis' lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.''</blockquote>

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchant
s who sold this commodity throughout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word ''hemp'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''kannabis'' shows that the word came down from the presumed [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. Words like ''kanapish'' for "hemp" occur in some [[Finno-Ugrian]] languages. It is likely that, soon after [[agriculture]] started, [[hemp]] as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

{{Herbs & spices}}

== References ==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references /></div>

== See also==
*[[Medical Cannabis]]
*[[Cannabis (drug)]]

== Further reading ==
* ''Cannabis: A History'' (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8
* [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_why.pdf ''UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannabis: Why We Should Care'' (2006)]
*[http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/?nnodeid=25484 EMCDDA drugs profile: Cannabis (2007)]

== External links ==
{{Portal}}
{{Wikispecies|Cannabis}}
{{commons|Cannabis sativa}}
{{wikiquote|Cannabis}}
*[http://www.abrilamente.com.ar Reggae Ska Rasta] 100% concius
* [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_family=&find_genus=Cannabis&find_species=&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch International Plant Names Index (IPNI)]
* [http://www.endocannabinoid.net/ The Endocannabinoid System Network (ECSN)] - Contains medical information to the Endocannabinoid System
* [http://www.dopefiend.co.uk/ Dopefiend.co.uk] - Audio Podcast with information on Cannabis and related issues
* [http://www.cannabis.com/ Cannabis.com] Comprehensive Cannabis Faq and cannabis picture gallery
* [http://www.canaseed.com/ Cannabis Seeds] Comparison and information site
* [http://www.weedspotter.com/ Weedspotter.com] Medical Marijuana and Medicinal use of cannabis information
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6606931.stm Cannabis 'disrupts brain centre']
*
[http://video.google.com/url?docid=-5472332679367311144&esrc=sr4&ev=v&q=grass&vidurl=http://video.google.com/videoplay%3Fdocid%3D-5472332679367311144%26q%3Dgrass&usg=AL29H21qkO7EWCBJhTKm32tcY6rHCc_kUg Google Video] - Educational Video about the current prohibition of Cannabis

{{Cannabis resources}}

[[Category:Urticales]]
[[Category:Cannabis|*]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Underutilized crops]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]

Cantua buxifolia

2009-06-05T16:14:25Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
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{{Inc|

Cantua buxifolia, Juss. (C. dependens, Pers.). Much-branched shrub, about 4 ft. high; branches more or less downy: lvs. very variable, generally oblong-obovate, acute, tapering at the base, entire or serrate, downy or glabrous: fls. 5-8, drooping vertically, in a kind of leafy, terminal corymb; calyx pale, membranous, green- streaked, 5-toothed, a fourth shorter than the corolla- tube; corolla long-funnel-shaped, the tube 2½ in. long, red, usually streaked; limb of fringed, obcordate, crimson lobes which are much shorter than the tube; stamens included. Peru. Apr., May. B.M. 4582. F.S. 7:650. R.H. 1858, p. 294. R.B. 27:181.—One of the choicest of European greenhouse plants. Very liable to red spider.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Cantua

2009-06-05T16:13:35Z

59.92.109.153:

{{Inc|
Cantua (from Cantu, Peruvian name). Pole- moniaceae. Showy flowering shrubs, with variable foliage, in greenhouses, and out-of-doors far South.
Flowers corymbose; calyx campanulate, of 5 (rarely 3) sepals, which are much shorter than the long tubular corolla; stamens inserted at the base of the corolla, but exceeding it in length.-Six species in S. Amer. One kind is recommended in Eu. as a coolhouse shrub. No tenderer than fuchsias. Prop. by cuttings in sand under a bell-jar.
}}
__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''Cantua''
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{{edit-desc}}

==Cultivation==
{{monthbox
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}}
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==





==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Cannabis

2009-06-05T16:12:38Z

59.92.109.153:

{{Inc|
Cannabis (the ancient Greek name). Moraceae. Hemp. A widely cultivated fiber plant, and also used occasionally as an ornamental subject, being grown from seeds and treated as a half-hardy annual.
Hemp is dioecious: staminate fls. in axillary panicles, with 5 sepals and 5 drooping stamens and no petals; pistillate fls. in short spikes, with 1 sepal folding about the ovary: lvs. digitate, with 5-7 nearly linear, coarse- toothed lfts.: fr. a hard and brittle achene. C. sativa, Linn., probably native in Cent. Asia, is now escaped in many parts of the world: tall, rough and strong- smelling, 8-12 ft.: lfts. 5-11, linear-lanceolate, toothed, the upper lvs. alternate and the others more or less opposite. Only one species, but various forms have received specific names. In gardens, the form known as C. gigantea is commonest; this reaches a height of 10 ft. and more. The seeds are usually sown where the plants are to stand; but if quick effects are wanted, they may be started indoors in pots or boxes. Hemp makes excellent screens in remote places. It thrives best in a rich rather moist soil. For field cult, for fiber (which is derived from the inner bark), see Cyclo. Amer. Agric., Vol. II, p. 377. L. H. B.
}}
{{wiktionary}}{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cannabis
| image = Cannabis sativa Koehler drawing.jpg
| image_width = 203px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Urticales]]
| familia = [[Cannabaceae]]
| genus = '''''Cannabis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
[[Cannabis sativa|''Cannabis sativa'' L.]]<br />
[[Cannabis indica|''Cannabis indica Lam.'']]<br />
[[Cannabis ruderalis|''Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.'']]
}}
:''This article is about the plant g enus ''Cannabis''. For use as a psychoactive drug, see [[Cannabis (drug)]]. For use as a therapeutic drug, see [[Medical Cannabis]]. For non-drug cultivation and uses, see [[Hemp]].''

'''Cannabis''' is a genus of [[flowering plant]]s that includes three putative species, ''Cannabis sativa'' L., ''Cannabis indica'' Lam., and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. These three taxa are indigenous to [[central Asia]] and surrounding regions. Industrial [[hemp]] products are made from ''Cannabis'' plants selected to produce an abundance of fiber and minimal levels of [[THC]] (Δ<sup>9</sup>- tetrahydrocannabinol), the [[psychoactive]] molecule that produces the "high" associated with [[marijuana]]. The crude drug consists of dried flowers and leaves of plants selected to produce high levels of THC. Various extracts including [[hashish]] and hash oil are also produced<ref name=”erowid”>Erowid. 2006. [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_basics.shtml ''Cannabis'' Basics]. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> The cultivation and possession of ''Cannabis'' for recreational use is outlawed in most countries.

== Description ==
''Cannabis'' is an [[Annual plant|annual]], [[dioecious]], [[Flowering plant|flowering]] [[herb]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[Leaf shape|palmately compound]], with [[serrate]] [[leaflet]]s. The first pair of leaves usually have a single leaflet, the number gradually increasing up to a maximum of about thirteen leaflets per leaf (usually seven or nine), depending on variety and growing conditions. At the top of a flowering plant, this number again diminishes to a single leaflet per leaf. The lower leaf pairs usually occur in an opposite [[Phyllotaxis|leaf arrangement]] and the upper leaf pairs in an alternate arrangement on the main stem of a mature plant.

''Cannabis'' usually has [[Plant sexuality#Terminology|imperfect]] [[flowers]] with [[Stamen|staminate]] "male" and [[pistil]]late "female" flowers occurring on separate plants,<ref name=”lebel1997”>Lebel-Hardenack, S. and S. R. Grant. 1997. Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants. ''Trends in Plant Science'' '''2'''(4): 130–136.</ref> although [[Hermaphrodite#In plants|hermaphroditic]] flowers sometimes occur.<ref name="moliterni2005">Cristiana Moliterni, V. M., L. Cattivelli, P. Ranalli. and G. Mandolino. 2005. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/t491042240h422v8/?p=702c2acbac6445a095ebaf968bca427d&pi=11 The sexual differentiation of ''Cannabis sativa'' L.: A morphological and molecular study]. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1-2): 95-106. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Male flowers are borne on loose [[panicle]]s, and female flowers are borne on [[raceme]]s.<ref name="bouquet1950"> Bouquet, R. J. 1950. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1950-01-01_4_page003.html ''Cannabis'']. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> It is not unusual for individual plants to bear both male and female flowers in some strains, a condition called monoecy.<ref name="mignoni1999">Mignoni, G. 1999. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1997-01-01_1_page003.html ''Cannabis'' as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe]. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved on 5 Oct 2006</ref> On [[monoecious]] plants, flowers of both sexes may occur on separate [[inflorescence]]s, or on the same inflorescence.<ref name="moliterni2005"/>

[[Cannabinoids]], [[terpenoids]], and other volatile compounds are secreted by glandular [[tricho
mes]] that occur most abundantly on the floral [[calyx]]es and [[bract]]s of female plants.<ref name="mahlberg2001a">Mahlberg, Paul G. and Eun Soo Kim. 2001. [http://www.hempreport.com/issues/17/malbody17.html THC (tetrahyrdocannabinol) accumulation in glands of ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''The Hemp Report'' '''3'''(17). Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

All known strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[Anemophily|wind-pollinated]]<ref name="clarke1991a">Clarke, Robert C. 1991. ''Marijuana Botany'', 2nd ed. Ronin Publishing, California. ISBN 0-914171-78-X</ref> and produce "[[seed]]s" that are technically called [[achene]]s.<ref name="small1975c">Small, E. 1975. Morphological variation of achenes of ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''53'''(10): 978-987.</ref> Most strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[short day plant]]s,<ref name=clarke1991a/> with the possible exception of ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' (= ''C. ruderalis''), which is commonly described as "auto-flowering" and may be [[Day neutral plant|day-neutral]].

''Cannabis'' is naturally [[Ploidy|diploid]], having a [[chromosome]] complement of 2n=20, although polyploid individuals have been artificially produced.<ref name=”small1972a”>Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref>
Cannabis is a genus of flowering plant which includes one or more species. The plant is believed to have originated in the mountainous regions just north west of the Himalayas. It is also known as hemp, although this term usually refers to varieties of Cannabis cultivated for non-drug use. Cannabis plants produce a group of chemicals called cannabinoids which produce mental and physical effects when consumed. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried leaves (marijuana), resin (hashish), or various extracts collectively known as hash oil [¹]. In the early 20th century, it became illegal in most of the world to cultivate or possess Cannabis for drug purposes.

== Taxonomy ==
The genus ''Cannabis'' was formerly placed in the [[Nettle]] ([[Urticaceae]]) or [[Mulberry]] ([[Moraceae]]) family, but is now considered along with [[Hop (plant)|hops]] (''Humulus'' sp.) to belong to the [[Hemp]] family ([[Cannabaceae]]).<ref name=schultes2001a>Schultes, R. E., A. Hofmann, and C. Rätsch. 2001. The nectar of delight. In: ''Plants of the Gods'' 2nd ed., Healing Arts Press, Rochester, Vermont, pp. 92-101. ISBN 0-89281-979-0</ref> Recent [[phylogenetic]] studies based on [[cpDNA]] [[restriction site]] analysis and [[gene sequencing]] strongly suggest that the Cannabaceae arose from within the [[Celtidaceae]] [[clade]], and that the two families should be merged to form a single [[monophyletic]] group.<ref name=song2001>Song, B.-H., Wang, X.-Q., Li, F.-Z., and Hong, D.-Y. 2001. [http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/9v01xfaw7t8qx288/?p=db82cdfc53554cc687fd999a5c7e371f&pi=8 Further evidence for paraphyly of the Celtidaceae from the chloroplast gene ''matK'']. ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'' '''228'''(1-2): 107-115.</ref><ref name=sytsma2002>Sytsma, K. J., Morawetz, J., Pires, J. C., Nepokroeff, M., Conti, E., Zjhra, M., Hall, J. C., and Chase, M. W. 2002. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/89/9/1531 Urticalean Rosids: circumscription, Rosid ancestry, and phylogenetics based on ''rbcL'', ''trnL-F'', and ''ndh-F'' sequences]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''89'''(9): 1531-1546.</ref>

Various types of ''Cannabis'' have been described, and classified as [[species]], [[subspecies]], or [[Variety (biology)|varieties]]:<ref name="small1975b">Small, Ernest. 1975. [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/bulletin/bulletin_1975-01-01_3_page002.html American law and the species problem in ''Cannabis'': Science and semantics]. ''Bulletin on Narcotics'' '''27'''(3): 1-20. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>
*plants cultivated for fiber and seed production, described as low-intoxicant, non-drug, or fiber types
*plants cultivated for drug production, described as high-intoxicant or drug types
*escaped or wild forms of either of the above types.

''Cannabis'' plants produce a unique family of terpeno-phenolic compounds called cannabinoids, which produce the "high" one experiences from smoking marijuana. The two cannabinoids usually produced in greatest abundance are cannabidiol ([[CBD]]) and/or Δ<sup>9</sup>-tetrahydrocannabinol ([[THC]]), but only THC is psychoactive. Since the early 1970s, ''Cannabis'' plants have been categorized by their chemical [[phenotype]] or "chemotype," based on the overall amount of THC produced, and on the ratio of THC to CBD.<ref name="small1973a">Small, E. and H. D. Beckstead. 1973. Common cannabinoid phenotypes in 350 stocks of ''Cannabis''. ''Lloydia'' '''36''': 144–165.</ref> Although overall [[cannabinoid]] production is influenced by environmental factors, the THC/CBD ratio is genetically determined and remains fixed throughout the life of a plant.<ref name="meijer2003a">Etienne P. M. de Meijer, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti, V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Non-drug plants produce relatively low levels of THC and high levels of CBD, while drug plants produce high levels of THC and low levels of CBD. When plants of these two chemotypes cross-pollinate, the plants in the first filial (F<sub>1</sub>) generation have an intermediate chemotype and produce similar amounts of CBD and THC. Female plants of this chemotype may produce enough THC to be utilized for drug production.<ref name=small1973a/><ref name="hillig2004a">Hillig, Karl W. and Paul G. Mahlberg. 2004. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/966 A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''91'''(6): 966-975. Retrieved on 22 Feb 2007</ref>

[[Image:Marijuana.jpg|left|thumb|Leaf of a ''Cannabis'' plant.]]
[[Image:Cannabis-vegetative-growth-00003.jpg|right|thumb|Top of ''Cannabis'' plant in vegetative growth stage.]]
Whether the drug and non-drug, cultivated and wild types of ''Cannabis'' constitute a single, highly variable species, or the genus is polytypic with more than one species, has been a subject of debate for well over two centuries. This is a contentious issue because there is no universally accepted definition of a [[species]].<ref name=”small1979a”>Small, E. 1979. Fundamental aspects of the species problem in biology. In: ''The Species Problem in Cannabis'', vol. 1: Science. Corpus Information Services, Toronto, Canada, pp. 5-63. ISBN 0-919217-11-7</ref> One widely applied criterion for species recognition is that species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."<ref name="glossary">Rieger, R., A. Michaelis, and M. M. Green. 1991. ''Glossary of Genetics'', 5th ed. Springer-Verlag, pp. 458-459. ISBN 0-387-52054-6</ref> Populations that are physiologically capable of interbreeding, but morphologically or genetically divergent and isolated by geography or ecology, are sometimes considered to be separate species.<ref name=glossary/> [[Reproductive isolation|Physiological barriers to reproduction]] are not known to occur within ''Cannabis'', and plants from widely divergent sources are interfertile.<ref name=”small1972a”>Small, E. 1972. Interfertility and chromosomal uniformity in ''Cannabis''. ''Canadian Journal of Botany'' '''50'''(9): 1947-1949.</ref> However, physical barriers to gene exchange (such as the Himalayan mountain range) might have enabled ''Cannabis'' gene pools to diverge before the onset of human intervention, resulting in speciation.<ref name=”hillig2005a”>Hillig, Karl W. 2005. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/gres/2005/00000052/00000002/00004452 Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52'''(2): 161-180. Retrieved on 23 F
eb 2007</ref> It remains controversial whether sufficient morphological and genetic divergence occurs within the genus as a result of geographical or ecological isolation to justify recognition of more than one species.<ref name="small1975a"> Small, E. 1975. [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-1975-21-3.php On toadstool soup and legal species of marihuana]. ''Plant Science Bulletin'' '''21'''(3): 34-39. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="emboden1981a">Emboden, W. A. 1981. The genus ''Cannabis'' and the correct use of taxonomic categories. ''Journal of Psychoactive Drugs'' '''13''': 15–21.</ref><ref name="schultes1980a">Schultes, R. E., and A. Hofmann. 1980. ''Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens''. C. C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, pp. 82–116. ISBN 0-398-03863-5</ref>

=== Early classifications ===
The ''Cannabis'' genus was first [[Scientific classification|classified]] using the "modern" system of taxonomic [[Binomial nomenclature|nomenclature]] by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in 1753, who devised the system still in use for the naming of species.<ref name="linnaeus1753">Linnaeus, C. 1753. ''Species Plantarum'' '''2''': 1027. Salvius, Stockholm. [Facsimile edition, 1957-1959. Ray Society, London, U.K.]</ref> He considered the genus to be monotypic, having just a single species that he named ''Cannabis sativa'' L. (L. stands for Linnaeus, and indicates the authority who first named the species). Linnaeus was familiar with European hemp, which was widely cultivated at the time. In 1785, noted evolutionary biologist [[Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck]] published a description of a second species of ''Cannabis'', which he named ''Cannabis indica'' Lam.<ref name="lamarck1785">de Lamarck, J.B. 1785. ''Encyclopédie Méthodique de Botanique'', vol. 1, pt. 2. Paris, France, pp. 694-695</ref> Lamarck based his description of the newly named species on plant specimens collected in India. He described ''C. indica'' as having poorer fiber quality than ''C. sativa'', but greater utility as an [[Psychoactive drug|inebriant]]. Additional ''Cannabis'' species were proposed in the 19th century, including strains from China and Vietnam (Indo-China) assigned the names ''Cannabis chinensis'' Delile, and ''Cannabis gigantea'' Delile ex Vilmorin.<ref name="small1976a">Small, E. and A. Cronquist. 1976. A practical and natural taxonomy for ''Cannabis''. ''Taxon'' '''25'''(4): 405–435.</ref> However, many taxonomists found these putative species difficult to distinguish. In the early 20th century, the single-species concept was still widely accepted, except in the Soviet Union where ''Cannabis'' continued to be the subject of active taxonomic study. The name ''Cannabis indica'' was listed in various [[Pharmacopoeia]]s, and was widely used to designate ''Cannabis'' suitable for the manufacture of medicinal preparations.<ref name=”winek1977”>Winek, C. L. 1977. Some historical aspects of marijuana. ''Clinical Toxicology'' '''10'''(2): 243-253.</ref>

=== 20th Century ===
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that [[ruderal]] ''Cannabis'' in central Russia is either a variety of ''C. sativa'' or a separate species, and proposed ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''ruderalis'' Janisch. and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch. as alternative names.<ref name=small1975b/> In 1929, renown plant explorer [[Nikolai Vavilov]] assigned wild or feral populations of ''Cannabis'' in Afghanistan to ''C. indica'' Lam. var. ''kafiristanica'' Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to ''C. sativa'' L. var. ''spontanea'' Vav.<ref name="hillig2004a">Hillig, Karl W. and Paul G. Mahlberg. 2004. [http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/91/6/966 A chemotaxonomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''91'''(6): 966-975. Retrieved on 22 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=small1976a/> In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex classification in which they also recognized ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. Within ''C. sativa'' they recognized two subspecies: '
'C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''culta'' Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''spontanea'' (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two ''C. sativa'' subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies ''culta''. However, they did not divide ''C. indica'' into subspecies or varieties.<ref name=small1975b/><ref name="serebriakova1940">Serebriakova T. Ya. and I. A. Sizov. 1940. Cannabinaceae Lindl. In: Vavilov N. I. (ed.), ''Kulturnaya Flora SSSR'', vol. 5, Moscow-Leningrad, USSR, pp. 1-53. [in Russian]</ref> This excessive splitting of ''C. sativa'' proved too unwieldy, and never gained many adherents.

[[Image:Cannabis ruderalis.jpg|right|thumb|Ruderal ''Cannabis''.]]
In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of ''Cannabis'' took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting ''Cannabis'' in the United States and Canada specifically named products of ''C. sativa'' as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized ''Cannabis'' material may not have been ''C. sativa'', and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while Dr. Richard E. Schultes and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.<ref name=small1975a/><ref name=emboden1981a/> The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.<ref name=”watts2006”>Watts, G. 2006. [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/reprint/332/7534/175.pdf ''Cannabis'' confusions]. BMJ 332: 175-176. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small<ref name=”smallbiography”>[http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html Ernest Small (biography)]. National Research Council Canada. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> and American taxonomist [[Arthur Cronquist]] published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of ''Cannabis'' with two subspecies: ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'', and ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (Lam.) Small & Cronq.<ref name=small1976a/> The authors hypothesized that the two subspecies diverged primarily as a result of human selection; ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' was presumably [[Artificial selection|selected]] for traits that enhance fiber or seed production, whereas ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' was primarily selected for drug production. Within these two subspecies, Small and Cronquist described ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' Vav. as a wild or escaped variety of low-intoxicant ''Cannabis'', and ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' var. ''kafiristanica'' (Vav.) Small & Cronq. as a wild or escaped variety of the high-intoxicant type. This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of [[phenotypic]] characters.<ref name=small1973a/><ref name=small1976a/><ref name="small1976b">Small, E., P. Y. Jui, and L. P. Lefkovitch. 1976. A numerical taxonomic analysis of ''Cannabis'' with special reference to species delimitation. ''Systematic Botany'' '''1'''(1): 67-84.</ref>

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist [[Richard E. Schultes]] and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'' in the 1970s, and concluded that stable [[morphological]] differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and ''C. ruderalis.''<ref name=”schultes1974a”>Schultes, R. E., W. M. Klein, T. Plowman, and T. E. Lockwood. 1974. ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''23''': 337–367.</ref><ref name=”anderson1974a”>[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard Uni
versity Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''24''': 29–36. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”anderson1980a”>[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''28''': 61–69. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=emboden1974a>Emboden, W. A. 1974. ''Cannabis'' – a polytypic genus. ''Economic Botany'' '''28''': 304-310.</ref> For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that ''Cannabis'' is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name="schultes1970a">Schultes, R. E. 1970. Random thoughts and queries on the botany of ''Cannabis''. In: Joyce, C. R. B. and Curry, S. H. (eds), ''The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis''. J. & A. Churchill, London, pp. 11-38.</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, ''C. sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''C. indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''C. ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in [[central Asia]]. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by ''Cannabis'' aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" drug [[cannabis strains|strains]] from wide-leafed "indica" drug strains.<ref name="clarke2005a">[http://www.norml.org.nz/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=588 Interview with Robert Connell Clarke]. 1 Jan 2005. NORML, New Zealand. Retrieved on 19 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Ongoing research ===
[[Molecular biology|Molecular analytical techniques]] developed in the late twentieth century are being applied to questions of taxonomic classification. This has resulted in many reclassifications based on [[History of plant systematics#Evolutionary systematics|evolutionary systematics]]. Several studies of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA ([[RAPD]]) and other types of genetic markers have been conducted on drug and fiber strains of ''Cannabis'', primarily for plant breeding and forensic purposes.<ref name=”faeti1996a”>Faeti, V., G. Mandolino, and P. Ranalli. 1996. Genetic diversity of ''Cannabis sativa'' germplasm based on RAPD markers. ''Plant Breeding'' '''115''': 367–370.</ref><ref name=”forapani2001a”>Forapani, S., A. Carboni, C. Paoletti, V. M. Christiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2001. [http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/41/6/1682 Comparison of hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) varieties using Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA markers]. ''Crop Science'' '''41''': 1682-1689. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="mandolino2002a">Mandolino, G. and Ranalli, P. 2002. [https://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=WHMFTL5P4HRL8KGL589LPHULAS5X554F&ID=8157 The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp]. ''Journal of Industrial Hemp'' '''7'''(1): 7-23. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”gilmore2003a”>Gilmore S., R. Peakall, and J. Roberts. 2003. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-478RNWR-7&_user=10&_coverDate=01%2F09%2F2003&_alid=541458074&_rdoc=2&_fmt=summary&_orig=search&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=196333f36d13d0b0bacdfa4dbbfd5abe Short tandem repeats (STR) DNA markers are hypervariable and informative in ''Cannabis sativa'': implications for forensic investigations]. ''Forensic Science International'' '''131'''(1): 65-74. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”kojoka2002a”>Kojoka M., O. Iida, Y. Makino, S. Sekita, and M. Satake. 2002. DNA fingerprinting of ''Cannabis sativa'' using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification. ''Planta Medica'' '''68'''(1): 60-63.</ref> Dutch ''Cannabis'' researcher E.P.M. de Meijer and coworkers described some of their RAPD studies as showing an "extremely high" degree of genetic polymorphism between and within populations, suggesting a high degree of potential variation for selection, even in heavily selected hemp cultivars.<ref name="meijer2003a">Etienne P. M. de Meijer, M. Bagatta, A. Carboni, P. Crucitti,
V. M. Cristiana Moliterni, P. Ranalli, and G. Mandolino. 2003. [http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/1/335 The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genetics'' '''163'''(1): 335-346. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> They also commented that these analyses confirm the continuity of the ''Cannabis'' gene pool throughout the studied accessions, and provide further confirmation that the genus comprises a single species.

Karl W. Hillig, a [[graduate]] student in the laboratory of long-time ''Cannabis'' researcher Paul G. Mahlberg<ref name=”mahlbergNAIHC”>[http://www.naihc.org/MahlbergArticles.html Dr. Paul G. Mahlberg's ''Cannabis'' Research]. North American Industrial Hemp Council. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> at [[Indiana University (Bloomington)|Indiana University]], conducted a systematic investigation of genetic, morphological, and [[chemotaxonomic]] variation among 157 ''Cannabis'' accessions of known geographic origin, including fiber, drug, and feral populations. In 2004, Hillig and Mahlberg published a chemotaxomic analysis of cannabinoid variation in their ''Cannabis'' [[germplasm]] collection. They used [[gas chromatography]] to determine cannabinoid content and to infer [[allele]] frequencies of the [[gene]] that controls CBD and THC production, within the studied populations.<ref name=hillig2004a/> Hillig and Mahlberg concluded that the patterns of cannabinoid variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species, but not ''C. ruderalis.'' The authors assigned fiber/seed landraces and feral populations from Europe, central Asia, and Asia Minor to ''C. sativa''. Narrow-leaflet and wide-leaflet drug accessions, southern and eastern Asian hemp accessions, and feral Himalayan populations were assigned to ''C. indica.'' In 2005, Hillig published a genetic analysis of the same set of accessions (this paper was submitted ahead of his 2004 manuscript with Mahlberg, but was delayed in publication), and proposed a three-species classification, recognizing ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'', and (tentatively) ''C. ruderalis''.<ref name=”hillig2005a”>Hillig, Karl W. 2005. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/gres/2005/00000052/00000002/00004452 Genetic evidence for speciation in ''Cannabis'' (Cannabaceae)]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''52'''(2): 161-180. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> In his doctoral [[dissertation]] published the same year, Hillig stated that [[principal components analysis]] of [[phenotypic]] (morphological) traits failed to differentiate the putative species, but that [[canonical analysis|canonical variates analysis]] resulted in a high degree of discrimination of the putative species and infraspecific taxa.<ref name=”hillig2005b”>Hillig, Karl William. 2005. A systematic investigation of ''Cannabis''. Doctoral Dissertation. Department of Biology, Indiana University. Bloomington, Indiana. Published by [http://wwwlib.umi.com/dxweb/gateway UMI]. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Another paper published by Hillig on chemotaxonomic variation in the [[terpenoid]] content of the essential oil of ''Cannabis'' revealed that several wide-leaflet drug strains in their collection had relatively high levels of certain [[sesquiterpene]] alcohols, including guaiol and isomers of eudesmol, that set them apart from the other putative taxa.<ref name="hillig2004b">Hillig, Karl W. 2004. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T4R-4CPD4SG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=10%2F31%2F2004&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9e491613fa59a0a2cb5b5a3f83cd3118 A chemotaxonomic analysis of terpenoid variation in ''Cannabis'']. ''Biochemical Systematics and Ecology'' '''32''': 875-891. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref> Hillig concluded that the patterns of genetic, morphological, and chemotaxonomic variation support recognition of ''C. sativa'' and ''C. indica'' as separate species. He also concluded there is little support to treat ''C. ruderalis'' as a separate species from ''C. sativa'' at this time, but more research on wild and weedy populations is needed because they were underrepresented in their collection.

As of 2007, most taxonomy web sites continue to list ''Cannabis'' as a single species.<ref name="GRIN">USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. [http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?2034 Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN)], National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="APNI">Barlow, Snow. 2006. [http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Cannabis.html Sorting ''Cannabis'' names]. Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database. The University of Melbourne. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="ITIS">[http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=19109 Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS)]. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="taxonomicon">[http://www.taxonomy.nl/Taxonomicon/TaxonTree.aspx?id=6455 The Taxonomicon]. Universal Taxonomic Services. Retrieved on 23 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Popular usage ===
The scientific debate regarding taxonomy has had little effect on the terminology in widespread use among cultivators and users of drug-type ''Cannabis''. ''Cannabis'' aficionados recognize three distinct types based on such factors as morphology, native range, aroma, and subjective psychoactive characteristics. "Sativa" is the term used to describe the most widespread variety, which is usually tall, laxly branched, and found in warm lowland regions. "Indica" is used to designate shorter, bushier plants adapted to cooler climates and highland environments. "Ruderalis" is the term used to describe the short plants that grow wild in Europe and central Asia.

Breeders, seed companies, and cultivators of drug type ''Cannabis'' often describe the ancestry or gross [[phenotype|phenotypic]] characteristics of [[cultivar]]s by categorizing them as "pure indica," "mostly indica," "indica/sativa," "mostly sativa", or "pure sativa."

In September of 2005, [[New Scientist]] reported that researchers at the Canberra Insitute of Technology had identified a new type of ''Cannabis'' based on analysis of [[mitochondria]]l and [[chloroplast]] DNA.<ref name=”newscientist”>2005. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725175.200 Rasta lends its name to a third type of ''Cannabis'']. ''New Scientist'' '''2517''': 12. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> The New Scientist story, which was picked up by many news agencies and web sites, indicated that the research was to be published in the journal ''Forensic Science International''. As of 25 Feb 2007 the article is listed as "in press," and there is no mention in the abstract of "Rasta."<ref name=gilmore2007a>Gilmore, S., R. Peakall, and J. Robertson. 2007. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6W-4N1SJSG-1&_user=10&_coverDate=02%2F12%2F2007&_alid=541458074&_rdoc=1&_fmt=summary&_orig=search&_cdi=5041&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=2&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=18b36b5a075a1cf95491de46a56b6c7f Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of ''Cannabis sativa'']. ''Forensic Science International''. In Press. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref>

=== Wild cannabis ===
Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' is mainly confined to hash producing areas such as [[Afghanistan]], and parts of [[Morocco]]. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' shows great local variation; for example, in warm places, it can reach heights up to 20 feet (6 m) tall, but in colder climates it can be as short as 1 foot (30 cm) in height. Almost every single flower branch bears a seed. The wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''sativa'' has long, thin and airy buds and a Christmas tree shape structure. Wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' remains compact and bushy with thick buds for the most part, and is sometimes used by the locals for hashish production. Generally, there are far fewer seeds in wild ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica''.

In many areas, wild or naturalized populations of ''Cannabis'' are considered [[invasive species]], and are often targeted by government-sponsored eradication programmes.

== Reproduction ==
=== Breeding systems ===
[[Image:CannabisSeeds.jpg|right|thumb|Some ''Cannabis sativa'' seeds]]
''Cannabis'' is predominantly [[dioecious]],<ref name=clarke1991a/><ref name="ainsworth2000">Ainsworth, C. 2000. [http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/86/2/211 Boys and girls come out to play: the molecular biology of dioecious plants]. ''Annals of Botany'' '''86'''(2): 211-221. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> although many monoecious varieties have been described.<ref name="meijer1999a">de Meijer, E. P. M. 1999. ''Cannabis'' germplasm resources. In: Ranalli P. (ed.). ''Advances in Hemp Research'', Haworth Press, Binghamton, NY, pp. 131-151. ISBN 1-56022-872-5</ref> Subdioecy (the occurrence of monoecious individuals and dioecious individuals within the same population) is widespread.<ref name="mignoni1999"/><ref name="schumann1999">Schumann, E., A. Peil, and W. E. Weber. 1999. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/j0581734t3222674/?p=17537b5e5396490d82c1dd09c0da993d&pi=9 Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.) accessions]. ''Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution'' '''46'''(4): 399-407. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref><ref name="ranalli2004a">Ranalli, P. 2004. Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding. ''Euphytica'' '''140'''(1): 121-131.</ref> Many populations have been described as sexually labile.<ref name="hirata1924">Hirata, K. 1924. Sex reversal in hemp. ''Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry'' '''16''': 145-168.</ref><ref name="schaffner1931">Schaffner, J. H. 1931. The fluctuation curve of sex reversal in staminate hemp plants induced by photoperiodicity. ''American Journal of Botany'' '''18'''(6): 424-430.</ref><ref name="mandolino2002a"/>

As a result of intensive selection in cultivation, ''Cannabis'' exhibits many sexual phenotypes that can be described in terms of the ratio of female to male flowers occurring in the individual, or typical in the cultivar.<ref name="truta2002a">Truta, E., E. Gille, E. Toth, and M. Maniu. 2002. [http://jag.igr.poznan.pl/2002-Volume-43/4/pdf/2002_Volume_43_4-451-462.pdf Biochemical differences in ''Cannabis sativa'' L. depending on sexual phenotype]. ''Journal of Applied Genetics'' '''43'''(4): 451-462. Retrieved on 24 Feb 2007</ref> Dioecious varieties are preferred for drug production, where the [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation#Sinsemilla|female plants]] are preferred. Dioecious varieties are also preferred for textile fiber production, whereas monoecious varieties are preferred for pulp and paper production. It has been suggested that the presence of monoecy can be used to differentiate between licit crops of monoecious hemp and illicit dioecious drug crops.<ref name="mignoni1999"/>

=== Mechanisms of sex determination ===

''Cannabis'' has been described as having one of the most complicated mechanisms of [[sex determination]] among the dioecious plants.<ref name="truta2002a"/> Many models have been proposed to explain sex determination in ''Cannabis''.

Based on studies of sex reversal in [[hemp]], it was first reported by K. Hirata in 1924 that an [[XY sex-determination system]] is present.<ref name="hirata1924"/> At the time, the XY system was the only known system of sex determination. The [[X0 sex-determination system|X:A system]] was first described in Drosophila spp in 1925.<ref name=”bridges1925”>Bridges, C. B. 1925. Sex in relation to chromosomes and genes. ''American Naturalist'' '''59''': 127-137.</ref> Soon thereafter, Schaffner disputed Hirata's interpretation,<ref name="schaffner1929">Schaffner, J. H. 1929. Heredity and sex. ''Ohio Journal of Science'' '''29'''(1): 289-300.</ref> and published results from his own studies of sex reversal in hemp, concluding that an X:A system was in use and that furthermore sex was strongly influenced by environmental conditions.<ref name="schaffner1931"/>

Since then, many different types of sex determination system have been discovered, particularly in plants.<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> Dioecy is relatively uncommon in the plant kingdom, and a very low percentage of dioecious plant species have been determined to use the XY system. In most cases where the XY system is found it is believed to have evolved recently and independently.<ref name=”negrutiu2001”> Negrutiu, I., B. Vyskot, N. Barbacar, S. Georgiev, and F. Moneger. 2001. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1540173 Dioecious plants; a key to the early events of sex chromosome evolution]. ''Plant Physiology'' '''127'''(4): 418-424.</ref>

Since the 1920s, a number of sex determination models have been proposed for ''Cannabis''. Ainsworth<ref name="ainsworth2000"/> describes sex determination in the genus as using "an X/autosome dosage-type."

[[Image:Cannabis indica Selkem.jpg|left|thumb|''Dense raceme of carpellate flowers typical of drug-type varieties of ''Cannabis'']]
The question of whether heteromorphic sex chromosomes are indeed present is most conveniently answered if such chromosomes were clearly visible in a [[karyotype]]. ''Cannabis'' was one of the first plant species to be karyotyped, however, this was in a period when karyotype preparation was primitive by modern standards (see [[Cytogenetics#History|History of Cytogenetics]]). Heteromorphic sex chromosomes were reported to occur in staminate individuals of dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp, but were not found in pistillate individuals of the same variety. Dioecious 'Kentucky' hemp was assumed to use an XY mechanism. Heterosomes were not observed in analyzed individuals of monoecious 'Kentucky' hemp, nor in an unidentified German cultivar. These varieties were assumed to have sex chromosome composition XX.<ref name="menzel1964">Menzel, Margaret Y. 1964. Meiotic chromosomes of monoecious Kentucky hemp (''Cannabis sativa''). ''Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club'' '''91'''(3): 193-205.</ref> According to other researchers, no modern karyotype of ''Cannabis'' had been published as of 1996.<ref name=”hong1996a”>Shao Hong and Robert C. Clarke. 1996. [http://www.hempfood.com/IHA/iha03207.html Taxonomic studies of Cannabis in China]. ''Journal of the International Hemp Association'' '''3'''(2): 55-60. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> Proponents of the XY system state that Y chromosome is slightly larger than the X, but difficult to differentiate cytologically.<ref name="peil2003">Peil, A., H. Flachowsky, E. Schumann, and W. E. Weber. 2003. Sex-linked AFLP markers indicate a pseudoautosomal region in hemp (''Cannabis sativa'' L.). ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''107'''(1): 102-109.</ref>

More recently, Sakamoto and various co-authors<ref name=”sakamoto1995a”> Sakamoto, K., K. Shimomura, Y. Komeda, H. Kamada, and S. Satoh. 1995. [http://pcp.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/8/1549 A male-associated DNA sequence in a dioecious plant, ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Plant & Cell Physiology'' '''36'''(8): 1549-1554. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref><ref name=”sakamoto2005a”> Sakamoto, K., T. Abe, T. Matsuyama, S. Yoshida, N. Ohmido, K. Fukui, and S. Satoh. 2005. [http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?_handler_=HandleInitialGet&journal=gen&volume=48&calyLang=eng&articleFile=g05-056.pdf RAPD markers encoding retrotransposable elements are linked to the male sex in ''Cannabis sativa'' L.] ''Genome'' '''48'''(5): 931-936. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007</ref> have used [[RAPD]] to isolate several [[genetic marker]] sequences that they name Male-Associated DNA in Cannabis (MADC), and which they interpret as indirect evidence of a male chromosome. Several other research groups have reported identification of male-associated markers using RAPD and [[Amplified fragment length polymorphism|AFLP]].<ref name=”torjek2002”>Törjék, O., N. Bucherna, E. Kiss, H. Homoki, Z. Finta-Korpelová, I. Bócsa, I. Nagy, and L. E. Heszky. 2002. Novel male specific molecular markers (MADC5, MADC6) for sex identification in hemp. ''Euphytica'' '''127''': 209-218.</ref><ref name=mandolino2002a/><ref name=meijer2003a/> Ainsworth commented on these findings, stating that "It is not surprising that male-associated markers are relatively abundant. In dioecious plants where sex chromosomes have not been identified, markers for maleness indicate either the presence of sex chromosomes which have not been distinguished by cytological methods or that the marker is tightly linked to a gene involved in sex determination."<ref name=ainsworth2000/>

Environmental sex determination is known to occur in a variety of species.<ref name=”tanurdzic2004”>Tanurdzic, M. and J. A. Banks. 2004. Sex-determining mechanisms in land plants. ''Plant Cell'' '''16''' (suppl.): S61-71.</ref> Many researchers have suggested that sex in ''Cannabis'' is determined or strongly influenced by environmental factors.<ref name=schaffner1931/> Ainsworth reviews that treatment with [[auxin]] and [[ethylene]] have feminizing effects, and that treatment with [[cytokinins]] and [[gibberellins]] have masculinizing effects.<ref name=ainsworth2000/> It has been reported that sex can be reversed in ''Cannabis'' using chemical treatment.<ref name=”mohanram1982”>Mohan Ram, H. Y., and R. Sett. 1982. Induction of fertile male flowers in genetically female ''Cannabis sativa'' plants by silver nitrate and silver thiosulfate anionic complex. ''Theoretical and Applied Genetics'' '''62''': 369-375.</ref>

== Aspects of ''Cannabis'' production and use ==
[[Image:Greendays01.jpg|190px|right|thumb|''Cannabis'' field seized by authorities]]

*[[Medical Cannabis]] discusses its use as a medication.
*[[Cannabis (drug)]] discusses its use as a recreational [[drug]].
*[[Spiritual use of cannabis]] discusses sacramental and religious use.
*[[Hemp]] discusses its uses as a source of [[housing]], [[Vegetable oil|oil]], [[food]], [[Fiber crop|fibers]], and industrial materials.
*[[Cannabis (drug) cultivation]] discusses aspects of cultivation for medicinal and recreational drug purposes
*[[Legal issues of Cannabis]] focuses on the law and enforcement aspects of growing, transporting, selling and using cannabis as a drug.
**[[Cannabis rescheduling in the United States]]
**[[Drug policy of the Netherlands]]
*[[Health issues and the effects of cannabis]] discusses the [[pharmacology]], physical, and mental effects of ''Cannabis'' when used as drug.

== Etymology ==
The plant name '''cannabis''' is of [[Semitic]] origin: [English < Latin '''cannabis''' < Greek '''κάνναβις''' (kánnabis) < Hebrew '''קַנַּבּוֹס''' (qannabbôs) < '''קְנֵה בֹּשֶׂם''' (qěnēh bośem)]; However, the earlier [[Sumerian]] language used the word "kanubi", which means 'cane of two (sexes?)'. This is possibly the source for the Semitic usage.

Raphael Mechoulam and co-workers at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem suggest an alternative etymology for cannabis: Greek '''cannabis''' < Arabic '''kunnab''' < Syriac '''qunnappa''' < Hebrew '''pannag''' (= '''bhanga''' in Sanscrit and '''bang''' in Persian). They explain that in Hebrew, only the consonants form the basis of a word and the letters p and b are frequently interchangeable. The authors think it probable that pannag, mentioned in the Bible by the prophet Ezekiel (5, 22), is in fact ''Cannabis''.<ref name=mechoulam1991>Mechoulam, R., W. A. Devane, A. Breuer, and J. Zahalka. 1991. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T0N-475JC0F-323&_user=10&_coverDate=11%2F30%2F1991&_rdoc=2&_fmt=summary&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%234867%231991%23999599996%23357918%23FLP%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=4867&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_ct=41&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=f0c38ded781d4b6a825f283045e5666e A random walk through a ''Cannabis'' field]. ''Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior'' '''40'''(3): 461-464.</ref>

The Biblical Hebrew term ''qěnēh bośem'', literally "reed of balm", probably<ref name="labarre1980">[[Weston La Barre]]. 1980. ''Culture in Context; Selected Writings of Weston Labarre''. Duke University Press. (source not confirmed)</ref> refers to cannabis according to some etymologists,<ref
name="bookofgrass">Benetowa, Sara = ([[Sula Benet]]). 1936. Tracing one word through different languages. Institute of Anthropological Sciences, Warsaw. Reprinted 1967 In: ''The Book of Grass''. George Andrews and Simon Vinkenoog (eds.) Grove Press, New York, "pp. 15-18.</ref> but is more commonly thought to be lemon grass, calamus, or even sweet cane, due to widespread translation issues.<ref name=”low1924”>Immanuel Löw. 1924-1934. ''Flora der Juden'', vol. I-IV. Reprinted 1967. Hildeshein: Georg Olms (source not confirmed)</ref> The Hebrew Bible mentions it in [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:23|Exodus 30:23]] where God commands [[Moses]] to make a holy oil of [[myrrh]], [[cinnamon]], ''qěnēh bośem'' and [[cassia]] to anoint the [[Ark of the Covenant]] and the Tabernacle (and thus God's Temple in Jerusalem). Notably, this anointing oil is a special herbal formula that functions as a kind of polish and fragrance for the Ark and Tabernacle, and the Bible forbids its manufacture and use to anoint people ([[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:31|Exodus 30:31-33]]) with the exception of the Aaronic priesthood ([[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Exodus#30:30|Exodus 30:30]]).

Elsewhere, the Hebrew Bible simply uses "reed" ''qānēh'' as the name of a plant in four places whose context seems to mean "reed of balm" as a fragrant resin, [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Isaiah#43:24|Isaiah 43:24]], [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Jeremiah#6:20|Jeremiah 6:20]], [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Ezekiel#27:19|Ezekiel 27:19]] and [[:s:Bible (American Standard)/Song of Solomon#4:14|Song of Songs 4:14]]. The Hebrew name "reed of balm" comes from ''qěnēh'' (the noun construct form of ''qāneh'') means a "reed" or "cane" and ''bośem'' means "balm" or "aromatic" resin. Hebrew may have adapted the name ''qannabbôs'' from "reed of balm" ''qěnēh bośem'' as a substitute for the ambiguous name "reed".

This Biblical Hebrew term is often mistranslated as "[[sweet flag|calamus]]", also called "lemon grass" (Cymbopogon citratus) or "sweet flag" (Acorus calamus), following an ancient misunderstanding in the Greek [[Septuagint]] translation. The Hebrew Bible was written across centuries well up to the 5th Century BCE. However, centuries later, by the time the Septuagint was written around the 2nd Century BCE, the archaic Hebrew word ''qěnēh bośem'' appears to have already abbreviated into the later Hebrew form ''qannabbôs'', which is attested in Post Biblical Hebrew literature. Thus, the Septuagint did not recognize the Hebrew expression "reed of balm" and mistook it to refer to some unidentified plant. As a dynamic equivalent, the Septuagint rendered it as "calamus" (Greek ''kalamos''), which indeed is a "balmy" (scented) reed. The calamus plant was known in Greek mythology and processed into an aphrodisiac.

Unambiguous Hebrew or Aramaic references to cannabis are rare and obscure. Syriac has qanpa (a loan from kannabis) and tanuma (see the Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon.) but neither is found in the Peshitta, the Syriac Bible. Late Syriac Ahiqar texts include qanpa as "ropes of hemp" (tunbei de-qanpa). The Hebrew word qanbes, a loan word from kannabis, is used in the Mishnah as hemp [Kilaim 2:5; 5:8; 9:1,7; Negaim 11:2] in the sense of a constituent of clothing or other items.

The [[Scythian]] term ''cannabis'' probably derives from a Semitic origin as well. Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass<ref name=bookofgrass/> as saying:

<blockquote>''The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic 'kanbos' and the Scythian 'cannabis' lead me to suppose that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history. The Iranian Scythians were probably related to the Medes, who were neighbors of the Semites and could easily have assimilated the word for hemp. The Semites could also have spread the word during their migrations through Asia Minor.''</blockquote>

Likely, the name 'cannabis' was known from the Semitic merchant
s who sold this commodity throughout the ancient trade routes of Southeast Asia.

Comparing the English word ''hemp'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''kannabis'' shows that the word came down from the presumed [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. Words like ''kanapish'' for "hemp" occur in some [[Finno-Ugrian]] languages. It is likely that, soon after [[agriculture]] started, [[hemp]] as a cultivated plant spread widely, carrying its name with it. Source of Rus. konoplja, Pers. kanab, Lith. kanapes "hemp," and Eng. canvas and hemp.

{{Herbs & spices}}

== References ==

<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references /></div>

== See also==
*[[Medical Cannabis]]
*[[Cannabis (drug)]]

== Further reading ==
* ''Cannabis: A History'' (2005) Martin Booth ISBN 0-312-32220-8
* [http://www.unodc.org/pdf/WDR_2006/wdr2006_chap2_why.pdf ''UNODC: World Drug Report 2006, Chapter 2: Cannabis: Why We Should Care'' (2006)]
*[http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/?nnodeid=25484 EMCDDA drugs profile: Cannabis (2007)]

== External links ==
{{Portal}}
{{Wikispecies|Cannabis}}
{{commons|Cannabis sativa}}
{{wikiquote|Cannabis}}
*[http://www.abrilamente.com.ar Reggae Ska Rasta] 100% concius
* [http://www.ipni.org/ipni/advPlantNameSearch.do?find_family=&find_genus=Cannabis&find_species=&find_infrafamily=&find_infragenus=&find_infraspecies=&find_authorAbbrev=&find_includePublicationAuthors=off&find_includeBasionymAuthors=off&find_publicationTitle=&find_isAPNIRecord=on&find_isAPNIRecord=false&find_isGCIRecord=on&find_isGCIRecord=false&find_isIKRecord=on&find_isIKRecord=false&find_rankToReturn=all&output_format=normal&find_sortByFamily=on&find_sortByFamily=off&query_type=by_query&back_page=plantsearch International Plant Names Index (IPNI)]
* [http://www.endocannabinoid.net/ The Endocannabinoid System Network (ECSN)] - Contains medical information to the Endocannabinoid System
* [http://www.dopefiend.co.uk/ Dopefiend.co.uk] - Audio Podcast with information on Cannabis and related issues
* [http://www.cannabis.com/ Cannabis.com] Comprehensive Cannabis Faq and cannabis picture gallery
* [http://www.canaseed.com/ Cannabis Seeds] Comparison and information site
* [http://www.weedspotter.com/ Weedspotter.com] Medical Marijuana and Medicinal use of cannabis information
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6606931.stm Cannabis 'disrupts brain centre']
*
[http://video.google.com/url?docid=-5472332679367311144&esrc=sr4&ev=v&q=grass&vidurl=http://video.google.com/videoplay%3Fdocid%3D-5472332679367311144%26q%3Dgrass&usg=AL29H21qkO7EWCBJhTKm32tcY6rHCc_kUg Google Video] - Educational Video about the current prohibition of Cannabis

{{Cannabis resources}}

[[Category:Urticales]]
[[Category:Cannabis|*]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Underutilized crops]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]

Canna liliiflora

2009-06-05T16:09:40Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
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| genus =
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| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna liliiflora, Warsc. St. robust, green, 8-10 ft.: lvs. many, oblong, green, 3—4 ft. long, spreading from the st. at a right angle: fls. in a corymbose panicle; sepals linear, as long as the tube of the corolla; corolla-lobes lanceolate, 2-3 in. long, pale green, the tube of equal length; 3 upper staminodia white, united into a tube for half their length, the blade obovate and spreading; lip oblanceolate, as long as the staminodia. Colombia. R.H. 1884:132. F.S. 10:1055-6-A fine species. The white fls. finally become tinged with brown; lonicera-scented. L .H.B.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna iridiflora

2009-06-05T16:09:04Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna iridiflora, Ruiz & Pav. St. green, 6-12 ft.: lvs. broad-oblong, bright green, slightly pubescent beneath: racemes paniculate, drooping; fls. large, beautiful rose-color; tube of corolla and staminodia as long as the blade; sepals lanceolate, 1 in. long; corolla-lobes lanceolate, 2½ in. long; 3 upper staminodia somewhat longer than the corolla-lobes, obovate, nearly or quite 1 in. broad, rose-crimson; lip narrow, deeply emarginate, rose-crimson. Andes of Peru. B.M. 1968. B.R. 609. L.B.C. 10:905. R.H. 1861:110.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna latifolia

2009-06-05T16:07:29Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna latifolia, Miller (C. gigantea, Desf. C. macrophylla, Hort. C. neglecta, Weinm. C. gemella, Nees. C. Altensteinii, Bouche). St. stout, very tall (10-16 ft.) pubescent: lvs. ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, green, but purple-margined when young, the lower ones often 3—4 ft. long: fls. in several racemes forming a panicle, the bracts oblong or the lower ones becoming several inches long; sepals oblong and green, ½in. long, very unequal, petals lanceolate, acuminate, 2 in. long, scarlet; staminodia united into a tube, entire at apex or one of them 2-lobed, somewhat twisted, brick- red; lip brick-red: caps, large. S. Amer. L.B.C. 7:634.―C. heliconiifolia, Bouche, Texas to Venezuela, has the staminodia more or less connivent: fls. orange- red: lvs. long-petioled, more or less woolly, oblong- acuminate: plant 7-8 ft. Var. xalapensis, Kranzl (C. xalapensis, Bouche), has narrower lvs. and smaller stature.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna Lambertii

2009-06-05T16:07:00Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna Lambertii , Lindl. (C. Poeppigii, Bouche). St. stout, very tall (to 10 or 11 ft.): green and glabrous, 12-14 ft.: lvs. oblong-lanceolate to elliptic, green, acute: raceme simple or forked, lax and few-fld., the bracts large and oblong, green; sepals lanceolate, pale purple or lilac, ½in. long; petals lanceolate, acuminate, 1½ in. long, purple: staminodia unlike, obovate, entire, scarcely longer than the petals, connate at base, bright crimson; lip bright crimson-purple: caps, oblong, large. W. Indies, S. Amer. B.R. 470.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna Warscewiczii

2009-06-05T16:06:35Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna Warscewiczii, Dietr. (C. sanguinea, Warsc.). St. claret-purple and glaucous, 3—4 ft.: lvs. oblong and acute, more or less claret- or bronze-tinged, ½ft. long and nearly one-half as broad: raceme simple and rather dense, with ovate, brown, glaucous bracts; sepals lanceolate,½ in., glaucous purple; petals lanceolate, acuminate, nearly 2 in. long, reddish and glaucous; staminodia oblanceolate, entire, 2½-3 in. long, bright scarlet; lip oblanceolate, emarginate, bright scarlet. Costa Rica, Brazil. B.M. 4854. C. Selloi, Hort. (C. patens, Baker), of S. Brazil, is tomentose: sepals ovate; petals oblong-lanceolate, united into a tube; staminodia strongly reflexed, one 2-parted.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna edulis

2009-06-05T16:06:05Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna edulis, Ker (C. esculenta, Lodd. C. rubricaulis, Link). Rootstock thick and edible: st. stout, 8-12 ft., purple: lvs. large, oblong, or ovate-oblong, green or bronze, 1-2 ft. long: raceme lax, forked or simple; fls. red or brick-red, usually in pairs, the bracts orbicular or oblong; sepals oblong-lanceolate, ½in. long, tinged with red; petals oblong-lanceolate, 1½ in.; staminodia entire or emarginate, 2½ in. long, bright red or orange; lip bright red or yellow-red: caps, large. W. Indies, S. Amer. B.M. 2498. B.R. 775.—Starch is procured from the roots, and for this purpose the plant is widely cult, in the tropics.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna sylvestris

2009-06-05T16:05:49Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna sylvestris, Roscoe (C. portoricensis, Bouche).Plant stout, 4-5 or 6 ft.: lvs. long-oblong or oblong- lanceolate, acuminate, bright green, to 2½ ft. long and one-third as wide: raceme slender, usually squarrose, rarely simple; fls. narrow and elongated, red; sepals lanceolate and acute, ½in. long; petals much longer, lanceolate and very acuminate; staminodia sub-equal, narrow-spatulate; lip narrow, strongly revolute. W. Indies, Cent. Amer. C. limbata, Roscoe (C. patens, Hook. C. aureo-vittata, Lodd. C.floribunda,C.variegata, C. recurvata, C. loeta and C. ventricosa, Bouche), of S. Brazil, has unlike staminodia, the largest being 2-lobed, the medium one emarginate, the other entire, all red with yellow margins. B.R. 771. L.B.C.449 .
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Canna coccinea

2009-06-05T16:04:29Z

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''LATINNAME'' 
| common_names = 
| growth_habit = ? 
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = ? 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = 
| exposure = ? 
| water = ? 
| features = 
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = ? 
| sunset_zones = 
| color = IndianRed
| image = Upload.png 
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = 
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus =
| species =
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|

Canna coccinea, Miller (C. rubra, Willd.). St. slender, green, 4-5 or sometimes 6 ft.: lvs. oblong, or oblong-lanceolate, and acute: raceme simple and lax, with small green, orbicular bracts; sepals lanceolate,½in. or less long, green tinged with red; petals lanceolate, acuminate, 1½.in long, pale scarlet; staminodia 2, long and narrow, mostly emarginate; lip yellow-spotted: caps, globose and small. W. Indies, Cent, and S. Amer. C. formosa, Bouche, Brazil, has 3 unlike staminodia.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==


==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]