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Hardy Kiwi

2015-03-05T01:59:11Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Actinidiaceae
|genus=Actinidia
|species=arguta
|common_name=Hardy Kiwi, Kokuwa, Siberian gooseberry, Etc.
|name_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|habit=vine-climber
|habit_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|Min ht box=20
|Min ht metric=ft
|Max ht box=30
|Max ht metric=ft
|height_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|Min wd box=20
|Min wd metric=ft
|Max wd box=30
|Max wd metric=ft
|width_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|origin=Korea, N China, Siberia
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|sun_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|features=flowers, edible, fruit, foliage
|flower_season=early summer, mid summer, late summer
|flower_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|flowers=white
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=3
|usda_ref=Flora - A Gardener's Encyclopedia
|max_zone=9
|sunset_zones=2-10, 12, 14-24, 28, 31-41
|image=Actinidia-arguta.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Baby Kiwi Fruit
}}
A small, green to purple skinned, [[fruit]] similar to [[kiwifruit]], '''hardy kiwifruit''' is an edible, berry-sized [[fruit]] of a [[Cultivar Group]] of the [[woody plant|woody]] [[vine]] '''''Actinidia arguta'''''. Often sweeter than the [[kiwifruit]], hardy kiwifruit can be eaten whole and need not be peeled. Thin-walled, its exterior is smooth and leathery, providing a deceiving contrast to the fuzzy, brown exterior of its larger sibling fruits.

Common names include ''Kiwi Berry'', ''Baby Kiwi'', ''Hardy Kiwi'', ''Dessert Kiwi'' or ''Cocktail Kiwi'', ''Bower Vine'', ''Tara Vine'', ''Yang-tao''.

Growth Habit: In the forests where it is native, it is a climbing vine (liana), sometimes climbing one hundred feet high into trees. In cultivation it is more well-behaved but must be supported by a trellising system. The plant has a more delicate appearance than regular kiwifruit.

Foliage: Leaves are elongated and generally 2 to 5 inches long and attached to the stem on red petioles. They are usually serrated and far less leathery and fuzzy than regular kiwifruit.

Flowers: The flowers are about one-half inch in diameter, white to cream colored, somewhat fragrant, and produced as singlets to triplets in the leaf axiles. Flowering period extends over several weeks from early May to June, depending on climatic conditions. Plants are dioecious, having male and female flowers on separate plants, thus needing plants of both sexes to produce crops. However, self-fruiting females are known to exist.

Fruit: The fruit are generally green, fuzzless, and the size of grapes. Cut open, they look much like regular kiwifruit with its small black seeds, emerald green color, and typical rayed pattern. Although typically green in both the skin and flesh, some cultivars have various amount of red, either in the skin, flesh or both. Hardy kiwifruits are generally sweeter than regular kiwifruit. Sugar levels vary, ranging from 14% (as with kiwifruit) up to 29%.

Additional differences between cultivars can include perceived aroma of the fruit as well as bitterness of the skin. Commercial cultivation has begun for this crop in many regions of the United States due to the plants ability to grow in harsher climates than the kiwifruit.

{{Inc|
Actinidia arguta, Miq. (A. polygama., Lauche. not Miq. A. volubilis, Carr., not Miq. A. rufa, Miq.). Fig. 115. High-climbing: branches with brown lamellate pith: lvs. broad-elliptic or broadly ovate, 4—5 in. long, cuneate to subcordate at the base, setosely appressea serrate, glabrous beneath except the setose midrib: fls. 3 or more, white. 3/4in. across; sepals elliptic-oblong, tomentulose; petals brownish at the base: fr. subglobose, greenish yellow, about an inch long, sweet. June. Japan, Korea, Manchuria. {{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivars==
Only females will fruit.

===Female===
* ''Ananasnaja (Anna)'' - Said to be an outstandingly reliable bearer of relatively large fruit (to 1" X 1-1/2"). Fruit is said to be not quite as sweet as that of some other cultivars. Appears to be more resistant to spring frosts than other Actinidias and will supposedly produce blossoms on re-growth if the original growth is killed by frost in spring. A medium-size fruit, 4cm long and 2½cm in diameter{{pfaf183}}. Juicy and sweet with a distinct pineapple-like aroma and flavour{{pfaf183}}. Possibly a hybrid with A. kolomikta, it is a reliable bearer that often produces fruit in bunches like grapes{{pfaf183}}. A very hardy plant, tolerating temperatures down to -35°c when fully dormant{{pfaf183}}.
*''Ananasnaya''(different than above, with a Y)- Fruit is said to have a pleasant pineapple-like flavor. Appears to be a different cultivar from 'Ananasnaja', above. Can bear over 200 lbs. of fruit.
* ''Cordifolia''
* ''Dumbarton Oaks'' - Fruit is said to be especially sweet.
* ''Geneva'' - Bears fruit to about 1" long; ripens here in late September and October. From the Geneva, NY Agricultural Experiment Station. Very vigorous and reliably hardy.
* ''Issai'' (2 distinct self-fruitful cultivars from Japan) - Bears fruit to about 1" long; ripens here in late September and October. Very vigorous and reliably hardy here. A long fruit, up to 4cm in diameter, it is sweet with a good flavour and high quality{{pfaf183}}. The fruit is seedless when it is not pollinated{{pfaf183}}. This cultivar can produce fruits in the absence of a male pollinator, often in the first year after grafting, but yields will be increased if the plant is pollinated{{pfaf183}}.
* ''Ken's Red''
* ''Langer'' - Bears medium-size fruit of fine quality{{pfaf183}}. The original plant is from a homestead high in the Cascade Mountains where it had to endure summer droughts, deep snow, severe cold and wind, and other adverse conditions{{pfaf183}}.
* ''Michigan State'' - A female selection from Michigan State University. Well regarded for fruit size and quality.
* ''119-40B'' - A self-pollinating selection from the Arnold Arboretum in Massachusetts. Appears to be a typical A. arguta in other respects (unlike 'Issai'), and will probably be useful for pollinating other A. arguta cultivars.
* ''Red Princess''
* ''Professor Meader selections''
* ''74 Series''

===Male===
Various males are known but no extensive work has been done to determine pollen count or viability, flowering times, or vigorousness. If available, pollen from the regular kiwifruit works well but the seed resulting is usually sterile.

*''74-46'' - A male pollinator for other A. arguta cultivars.
*''Meader male'' - A male pollinator for other A. arguta cultivars. Can also be used to pollinate Actinidia callosa and A. purpurea.

==Cultivation==
The fast-growing, climbing [[vine]] is very hardy (hence the name), and is capable of surviving slow temperature drops to -32°C (-25°F). However they must acclimate to cold slowly and any sudden plunge in temperature may cause trunk splitting and subsequent damage to the vine. The vines need a frost-free growing season of about 150 days which will not be hampered by late winter or early autumn freezes in order to give a good crop, but are not damaged by late freezes. The vines can also be grown in low-chill areas, though all cultivars need a certain period of winter chilling and their needs vary, dependent upon cultivar, however, the exact amounts needed has not yet been established. To date, all cultivars that have been grown in both high chill and low chill areas have produced equally well. Late winter freezing temperatures will kill any exposed buds. The plants can be successfully grown in large containers.

Location: The vines will tolerate some shade but prefer a sunny location where they can ramble across some type of trellising system. They should have some protection from strong winds

Site Preparation: Hardy kiwi plants need a substantial trellis, patio cover, or other permanent place to grow upon. For the trellis system, either a single wire or T-bar system can be installed. Both have a 4 inch by 4 inch redwood post of 8 feet. For the T-bar, a 2 inch by 6 inch crossarm about 4 feet long is bolted in place. Bury the post 2 feet into the ground and cement in if at all possible. At each end of the system, a cemented deadman should be in place. Run wires across the posts and anchor tautly to the deadman. When using a patio cover, no extra trellising needs to be in place. Simply run the plant up a corner post to the top and allow the plant to then form a spoke work of shoots which would resemble an umbrella.

Soils: Hardy kiwi prefer well-drained, somewhat acid (pH 5 - 6.5) soils. Neutral soils are acceptable but the leaves may show nitrogen deficiency when the soils become too basic. The plants will not tolerate salty soils.

Irrigation: Hardy kiwi plants need large volumes of water during the entire growing season but must also be in well-drained soils. Watering regularly in the heat of the summer is a must. Never allow a plant to undergo drought stress. Symptoms of drought stress are drooping leaves, browning of the leaves around the edges, and complete defoliation with regrowth of new shoots when the stress is continuous. More plants probably die from water related problems than any other reason.

Fertilization: Based on work done on the regular kiwifruit, hardy kiwi plants are heavy nitrogen feeders which should be applied in abundance during the first half of the growing season. Late season applications of nitrogen will enhance fruit size but are discouraged as fruit then tends to store poorly. In basic soils, a citrus and avocado tree fertilizer should be broadcast about the vine and watered in well in early March. Follow up the initial fertilizing by supplemental additions to early summer. In other areas, use a high nitrogen fertilizer which contains trace elements unless it is known that the particular soil is deficient in another nutrient. Mulching with manures and/or straws is very beneficial. However, do not put the mulch directly in contact with the vine as crown rot will occur.

Pruning: For best fruit production, pruning in the winter is a must. All pruning techniques are usually based on a "cane replacement" and differ only based on the trellising method used. Kiwi vines need to be supported and this is usually done in one of three ways: single wire, 3-5 wire on a T-bar system, or onto a patio cover. In all cases, one stem is trained up to a wire at six feet and then allowed to grow along the wire. When growth ends in a "pig-tailing" of the shoot, it is cut behind the entanglement and new a shoot allowed to grow from a leaf base. After two years multiple shoots will now emerge from the lateral mainline. During the growing season, each lateral cane will send out a new shoot about 1/3 of the way from its own starting point. The next winter, prune off the older cane at the point that it connects with last summers new shoot. This process repeats itself every year.

Harvest: Ripening depends both on the cultivar grown and local climatic conditions. The Cordifolia cultivar ripens first in early September while the Anna (Ananasnaja) may need to wait until late October/early November before it sweetens to its best. Hardy kiwifruits drop or come off easily when they are ripe. Usually they are picked at the mature-ripe stage and allowed to ripen off of the vine as is done with kiwifruit.

==Propagation==
Cuttings for true offspring. Can be grown from seed, but outcome of fruit quality (and sex) is uncertain. In areas where the regular kiwifruit will grow, scions of the hardy kiwi may be grafted directly onto kiwifruit rootstock. Otherwise, one must either root their own from hardwood or greenwood cuttings or buy established plants.

Seed - sow spring in a greenhouse{{pfaf133}}. It is probably best if the seed is given 3 months stratification{{pfaf113}}, either sow it in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe in November or as soon as it is received. Fresh seed germinates in 2 - 3 months at 10°c, stored seed can take longer{{pfaf133}}. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in light shade in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. When the plants are 30cm or more tall, plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts{{pfafK}}. Most seedlings are male{{pfaf126}}. The seedlings are subject to damping off, so they must be kept well ventilated{{pfaf113}}. Cuttings of softwood as soon as ready in spring in a frame{{pfafK}}. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, July/August in a frame. Very high percentage{{pfaf113}}. Cuttings of ripe wood, October/November in a frame.

==Pests and diseases==
Plants are relatively free from problems, possibly due to their lack of heavy planting into areas so that pests begin to take a liking to the leaves, trunk, or roots. One odd problem is the fact that the trunks have a catnip-like aroma which cats love to rub against. When plants are small, this can be a problem as they can rub off any new shoots which emerge in the spring. Garden snails can also be a problem on younger plantings. Other pests include deer that browse on the leaves and gophers that attack the roots. Scale insects can damage if populations build up too extensively. Greenhouse thrips may also damage the fruit.

==Gallery==
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Weiki01.jpg
File:Weiki02.jpg
File:Actinidia-arguta-foliage.jpg
File:HardyKiwi.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
*Reich, Lee. Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention. Addison-Wesley, 1991. pp 121-138.

==See also==
*[[Kiwi]]
*[[Actinidia kolomikta]] - hardier (to -35F) but less vigorous than A. arguta.

== External links ==
* http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/hardy-kiwifruit.html
* [http://www.nzkiwiberry.com NZKiwiberry] (Information page at Delica exporting company)

__NOTOC__

Honeysuckle

2015-03-05T01:58:29Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Caprifoliaceae
|genus=Lonicera
|common_name=Honeysuckle
|Min ht metric=cm
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=2.5
|max_zone=on
|image=honeysuckle_w_y.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Lonicera periclymenum
}}
'''Honeysuckles''' ([[genus (biology)|genus]] ''Lonicera''; [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Caprifolium'' [[Mill.]]) are arching [[shrub]]s or twining [[vine]]s in the family [[Caprifoliaceae]], native to the [[Northern Hemisphere]]. There are about 180 species of honeysuckle, with by far the greatest diversity in [[China]], where over 100 species occur; by comparison, [[Europe]] and [[North America]] have only about 20 native species each. Widely known species include ''[[Lonicera periclymenum]]'' (European Honeysuckle), ''[[Lonicera japonica]]'' (Japanese Honeysuckle, White Honeysuckle, or Chinese Honeysuckle) and ''[[Lonicera sempervirens]]'' (Coral Honeysuckle, Trumpet Honeysuckle, or Woodbine Honeysuckle).

The [[leaf|leaves]] are opposite, simple oval, and from 1–10 cm long; most are [[deciduous]] but some are [[evergreen]]. Many of the species have sweetly-scented, bell-shaped [[flower]]s that produce a sweet, edible [[nectar]]. The [[fruit]] is a red, blue or black [[berry]] containing several seeds; in most species the berries are mildly [[poison]]ous, but a few (notably ''[[Lonicera caerulea]]'') have edible berries. The plant is eaten by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species - see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Honeysuckles]].

{{Inc|
Lonicera (after Adam Lonicer or Lonitzer, a German physician and naturalist, 1528-1586). Including Caprifolium, Xylosteum, Nintoa and Charmaecerasus. Caprifoliaceae. Honeysuckle. Ornamental shrubs grown for their handsome, usually profusely produced, often fragrant flowers and attractive berries.

Deciduous, rarely half-evergreen or evergreen, upright or climbing: lvs. opposite, usually short- petioled, entire or very rarely sinuately lobed, in a few species with distinct stipules: fls. in axillary peduncled pairs, each pair with 2 bracts and 4 bractlets, the latter often more or less connate into a cupula, sometimes wanting, or fls. in sessile whorls at the end of the branches; calyx 5-toothed: corolla with short or slender, often gibbous tube; 2-lipped or almost equally 5-lobed; stamens 5; ovary inferior, usually 2-3-, rarely 5-celled; the pairs sometimes partly or wholly connate: berry few- to many-seeded.—About 175 species throughout the northern hemisphere, in Amer. south to Mex., in Asia south to Java; about 90 species, besides numerous varieties and many hybrids, are in cult. For an account of the genus see Rehder, Synopsis of the genus Lonicera in Ann. Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard. 14:27-232, 20 pl. (1903).

The honeysuckles belong to our most popular ornamental shrubs. They are of easy cultivation and propagation, most of them are quite hardy and the flowers, though rather small, are profusely produced, mostly of pleasing and delicate colors varying from white or yellow to pink, purple or scarlet, and followed by attractive red, yellow, white, blue or black fruits; the shrubs are never coarse or weedy, do not produce dead wood to any extent, do not need much pruning, and are long-lived.

The upright or bush honeysuckles are very valuable for shrubberies, and the low procumbent species, like L. spinosa var. Alberli, L. thibetica, L. pileata, and L. trichosantha, are well suited for rockeries. Most of the cultivated species are hardy North, but L. Standishii, L. fragrantissima, L. pileata, L. Ledrbourii, L. quinquelocularis, L. Webbiana, L. rupicola, and other Himalayan species are less hardy and need sheltered positions or protection North. Some of the handsomest in bloom are the well-known L. tatarica, L. Korolkovii, L. spinosa var. Alberti, L. Maackii, L. Morrowi, L. Ledebourii. For their sweet-scented early flowers, L. Standishii and L. fragrantissima are to be recommended. Honeysuckles with very decorative fruits are L. Morrowii, L. tatarica, L. gracilipes,. alpigena, L. trichosantha, L. Maackii var. podocarpa, L. chrysantha. Nearly evergreen are L. pileata and L. nilida; half-evergreen, L. fragrantissima and L. Standishii. Loniceras thrive in almost any good garden soil, and prefer mostly sunny positions, but L. canadensis, L. nigra, L. Ledebourii, L. nispida and L. Xylosteum grow as well or better in partly shaded situations. Pruning may be done during winter except in the early-flowering species, like L.Standishii, L. fragrantissima, L. gracilipes and L. hispida. The climbing honeysuckles are well adapted for covering walls, arbors and other trelliswork; they have mostly handsome and often sweet-scented flowers, in the hardy L. tragophylla as long as 3 inches, in the tender L. Hilde- brandiana as long as 7 inches, but are somewhat deficient in foliage, with the exception of L. japonica, and liable to become leafless and unsightly at the base, and therefore may be mixed with other climbers, like ampelopsis, akebia, clematis. They perhaps show their beauty to the best advantage when allowed to ramble over shrubs and small trees. Those of the Caprifolium group are mostly hardy North, with the exception of the species of southern Europe and L. his- pidula, while of the Nintoa group L. japonica and L. Henryi are hardy North, at least in a sheltered position; these species make also a very handsome ground-cover, and, like L. Periclymenum, grow well in shade, but the others prefer sunny positions. Propagation is by seeds sown in fall or stratified and by cuttings of ripened wood; also by greenwood cuttings under glass in summer, but the species of the Periclymenum group grow less readily in this way. Most species hybridize very easily and only seeds collected from isolated plants should be used for propagation. L. spinosa var. Alberti is sometimes grafted high on stems of L. tatarica, thus forming a small weeping tree.

L. affinis. Hook. & Arn. Allied to L. japonica. Lvs.ovate, pubescent or glabrous beneath, 2-3 ½ in.: fls. white at first, turning to deep yellow; bracts subulate; very free-flowering. China, Japan.- L. alseuosmoides, Graebn. Allied to I,. Henryi. Branchlets glabrous: lvs. lanceolate or narrow-lanceolate, narrowed at base: fls. slightly over ½ in. long, orange-red. W. China.—L. Altmannii, Regel & Schmalh. (L. tenuiflora, Hegel & Winkl.). Allied to L. hispida. Shrub, to 6 ft.: branchlets pilose: lvs. broadly ovate to ovate- elliptic, pubescent below, ¾ -2 in. long: bracts ovate-lanceolate; corolla 2-lipped, whitish, ½ -3/4 in. long: fr. ovoid, scarlet. Turkestan. Var. pilosiuscula, Rehd. Lvs. only sparingly pilose on both sides. Hardy and handsome in fr.—L. augustiofola. Wall. Allied to L. thibetica. Erect shrub, to 10 ft.: lvs, lanceolate, pubescent below when young, 1-2 in. long: fla. long-peduncled, white, fragrant, with regular 5 lobed limb. Himalayas. F.S. 4, pp. 407,408b. Tender.— L arborea, Boiss. Allied to L. Maackii. Erect shrub or small tree, to 30 ft.: lvs. roundish ovate, pubescent, ¾ -1 ½ in. long.: fls. short- peduncled, 2-lipped, pinkish, small: fr. whitish. Spain. Var. pernica, Rehd. (L. nummularia, Fisch. & Mey. L. nummulariifolia, Jaub & Spach). Lvs. smaller, less pubescent: corolla-tube not gibbous. W. Asia to Afghanistan.—L. arizonica, Rehd. Allied to L. ciliosa: lvs. slender-petioled, 1—1 ¾ in. long: limb of corolla nearly equal; tube slender; style glabrous. Ariz. S.T.S. 1:23. L. biflora, Desf. (L. canescens, Schousb.). Allied to L. japonica. Climbing, grayish tomentose: lvs. ovate, small: fls. in pairs, white, 2-lipped, with slender, long tube, fragrant; bracts subulate. Spain, N. Afr.— L. cerrulescens, Dipp.-L. xylosteoides.—L. canescens, Schousb.-L. biflora.—L. Chamissoi, Bunge. Allied to L. orientalis: lvs.very short-stalked, oval or ovate, glabrous, 1-2 in. long: peduncles ¼ - ½ in. long: fr. red. N. E. Asia.—L. confusa, DC. Closely allied to L. biflora, but fls. and lvs. somewhat larger and ovary glabrous. Japan, China. B.R. 70 (as L. japonica). Gn. 45, p. 307. Has been often confounded with L. japonica, but is easily distinguished by the small subulate bracts.—L. conjugialis, Kellogg. Allied to L. orientalis. Erect shrub: lvs. oval or ovate, pubescent: fls. slender-peduncled, smail, 2-lipped, dark purple: fr. red. Wash, to Calif.—L. decipiens. Hook. f. and Thorms.-L. lanceolata. —L. deflexicalyx, Batalin. Allied to L. trichosantha. Upright shrub, to 15 ft.: lvs. lanceolate, acuminate, pubescent on both sides. 1 1/2-3 in. long: fls. slightly over ½ in.- long: f r. orange-red. W. China. B.M. 8536.—-L. Delavayi, Franch.-L. similis var. Delavayi.—L. depressa, Royle-L. Myrtillus var. depressa.—L. discolor, Lindl. (L. orientalis var. discolor, Clarke). Allied to L. orientalis. Lvs.ovate to ovate-oblong, glaucous and glabrous beneath: peduncles ½ -1 in. long: fls. yellowish white, slightly pinkish. Himalayas. B.R, 33:44.—L. diversifoliaa, Wall.-L. quinquelocularis.—L. Ferdinandii, Franch. Allied to L. iberica. Lvs.ovate to ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, sparingly hairy, 1-2 ¼ in. long, often with stipules: as. short-peduncled, ¾ in. long, yellow, appressed setose outside. N. W. and Cent. China. Var. leycesterioldes, Zabel (var. Beisaneriana, Zabel). Less hairy: Lvs.larger, to 7 in. long: corolla less setose. Only the variety is in cult.—L. floribunda, Boiss. & Buhse. Allied to Korolkovii. Lvs.broadly ovate to elliptic, obtuse: peduncles ½ - 1/3 in., decreasing in length toward the end of the Branchlets; bractlets nearly as long as ovaries. Persia. Not in cult.; the plant cult, under this name is L. Korolkovii.—L. Giraldii, Rehd. Allied to L. Henryi. Climbing: branchlets with fulvous spreading hairs: Lvs.oblong- lanceolate, hairy on both sides, 1 ½ -2 ¼ in long: fls. crowded at the end of the branchlets. ¾ in. long, densely covered with spreading yellowish hairs. W. China. B.M. 8236. R.H. 1907. p. 299.—L. Griftthii, Hook. f. & Thoms. Allied to L. Periclymenum. Lvs.broadly ovate to ovate-oblong, the pair below the infl. nearly suborbicular: whorls of fls. 2-3. each subtended by a cupula. Afghanistan. S.T.S. 1:24.—L. gynochlamydea, Hemsl. Allied to L. pileata. Upright shrub: Lvs.deciduous, lanceolate, acuminate, nearly glabrous, 2-4 in. long: fls. short-peduncled, 2-lipped, 1/3 -1/2 in. long, whitish, flushed pink: fr. red. W. China.— L. heterophylla, Decne. Allied to L. alpigena. Lvs.elliptic to oblong, lanceolate, sometimes irregularly lobed, acuminate, glabrous, 1 ¾ -3 ½ in. long: corolla yellowish white, flushed red: fr. distinct. Afghanistan, Turkestan. Var. Karelinii, Rehd. (L. Karelini, Bunge). Lvs.not lobed, glandular along the midrib: corolla usually glandular outside. Cent. Asia. Only the variety is sometimes cult.; hardy.—L. Karelini, Bunge—L. heterophylla var. Karelinii.—L. Koehneana, Rehd. Allied to L. chrysantha. Lvs.ovate., rhombic-ovate to obovate, acuminate, soft - pubescent beneath, 1-4 in. long: peduncles ½ -l in. long; bractlets connote into pairs, half as long as the pubescent ovary: fr. dark red. W. China. S. T. S. 1:21.— L. lanceolata, Wall. (L. decipiens. Hook. f. & Thoms.). Allied to L. orientalis. Lvs. ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, grayish green and pubescent beneath, particularly on the veins, 2-4 in. long: peduncle ½ in. long; braetlets at least half as long as ovaries: r. black, connate only at the base. Himalayas—L. Ieycesterioides,Graebn.-L. Ferdinandii var. leycestcrioides.—L. Maximowiczii, Maxim. Allied to L . orientalis. Shrub, to 6 ft.: lvs. oblong-elliptic: fls. peduncled, purplish violet, 2-lipped, rather small: frs. connate, red. N. E. Asia. Gt. 17:597.— L. micrantha, Dipp.-L. xylosteoides.— L.micranthoides, Zabel (L. nigra x L. tatarica). Similar to the latter: fls. small, reddish white; bractlets half as long or as long as ovary; stamens pubescent: fr. red. Garden origin.—L. microphylla, Willd. Allied to L. tangutica. Erect shrub, to 4 ft.: lvs. oval, about ½ in. long: fls. slender-peduncled, 2-lipped, yellowish white, small: berries connate, orange-red Altai to Himalayas.—L. mucronata, Rehd. Allied to L. fragrantissima. Lvs.broadly oval to obovate, mucronate, ½ -l in long: fls. short-stalked, white, fragrant: frs. connate, red. W. China. S.T.S. 2:122.—L. mupinensis, Rehd. Allied to L. alpigena. Bud-scales upright, lanceolate,persistent: lvs.oblong, acuminate, sparingly pilose beneath: fls. dark purple: frs. distinct, red. W China.—L, myrtilloides, Purpus. Allied to L. syringantha. Lvs. elliptic to oblong-ovate, acute, ½ -1 ½ in. long: peduncles ½ in- long; fls. pinkish white, ½ in. long, fragrant: frs. connate, red. Origin unknown.—L. Myrtillus, Hook. & Thoms. (L. parvifolia var. Myrtillus, Clarke). Allied to L. syringantha. Lvs.oval, obovate or oblong, ¼ -1 in. long: fls. short-stalked; bracts narrow-oblong; corolla tubular-campanulate, 1/3 in. long, yellowish white: fr. red, connate. Himalayas. S.T.S. 1:44. Var. depressa, Rehd. (L. depressa, Royle. L. parviflora, Hook, f. & Thoms.). Fls. slender-stalked; bracts broader, usually oval.—L. nepalensis, Kirchn. - L. xylosteoides.—L. nervosa, Maxim. Allied to L. orientalis. Shrub, to 10 ft., with slender dark purple branchlets: lvs.ovate, with purple veins, 1-2 in. long: fls. small,pink, long-peduncled, 2-lipped: fr. black, connate only at base. China. Hardy, graceful shrub.—L. nigra. Linn. Allied to the preceding species. Shrub, to 5 ft.: lvs.elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate 1 ½ -2 ½ in. long; fls. slender-peduncled, pink, small: fr. black. Mountains of Cent. Eu. H.W. 3, p. 128. — L. nummularia, Fisch. & Mey., and L. nummulariifolia, Jaub. & Spach-L. arborea var. persica. — L, obovata, Royle. Allied to L. tangutica. Lvs. very small, obovate: fls. small, yellowish white, gibbous, short-stalked: frs. connate, bluish black. Himalayas. — L. Otgae, Regel & Schmalh. Allied to L. hispida. Lvs.ovate to lanceolate, acute, ½ - 2 ½ in. long: fls. short- stalked, upright, 2-lipped, over ½ in. long: fr. bright red, distinct. Turkestan. — L. parvifolia. Hook. f. & Thoms.-L. Myrtillus var. depressa. — L. persica, Jaub. & Spach- L. arborea var. persica. — L. propinqua, Zabel (L. alpigcna x L.Ledebourii). An interesting hybrid, in one form more like the first, in the other more like the second parent. Of garden origin. — L. prostrata, Rehd. Allied to L. trichosantha. Prostrate shrub: lvs. oval or ovate, acute, ½ -l in. long- fls. small: fr. bright red. W. China. — L. purpurascens, Walp. Allied to L. tangutica. Branchlets pubescent: lvs. oval to oblong, pubescent, ¾ -1 ¾ in. long: fls. tubular-funnelform, dull purple, airy, over ½ in. long, gibbous: fr. bluish black. Himalayas, Afghanistan. — L. pyrenaica, Linn. Allied to L. canadensis. Glabrous: lvs.cuneate-oblong: fls. slender-peduncled, tubular-cam- panulate, regularly 5-lobed, white, ¾ in. long: frs. red, distinct. Pyrenees Mts. B.M. 7774. — L. quinquelocularis, Hardw. (L. diversifolia. Wall,). Allied to L. Maackii. Lvs.ovate or elliptic to oblong-ovate, narrowed or rounded at base, pubescent, 1 ¼ -2 ¾ in. long: fls. short-stalked; corolla ¾ in. long, with slender tube, pale yellow: fr. white. Himalayas, Afghanistan. H.I. 9:807. Var. translucens, Zabel (L. translucens, Carr. L. diversifolia, Dipp. ), Lvs. rounded or subcordate at base: tube gibbous, much shorter than limb. B.R. 30:33. — L. ramosissima, Franch. & Sav. Allied to L. tangutica. Lvs.oval to ovate, pubescent, ½ -l in.: fls. long- pedunclcd, yellowish: bractlets connate, as long as ovaries: fr. scarlet. Japan. Very handsome in fr. — L. retusa, Franch. Allied to L. orientalis. About 6 ft. high: lvs.obovate or broadly ovate, bluish white beneath: fls. in pairs, white, becoming yellowish: fr. shining black. W. China. S. T. S. 2:123.— L. rubicola. Hook. f. & Thoms. Allied to L. thibetica. Lvs.ovate to oblong, obtuse or acutish, dull bluish green above, glabrous or pubescent beneath, ½ -l in.long: fls. pubescent outside, pale purple. Himalayas. — L. saccata, Rehd. Allied to L. tangutica. Lvs.elliptic-oblong to oblong, obtusish, pubescent beneath, ¼ -2 in. long: fls. long-peduncled; bracts narrow-oblong, leafy: tube gibbous at base. Cent, and W.China. R.T.S. 1:20. — L. segreziensis. Lav. Similar to L. Xyloseteum: lvs.more pubescent, dark bluish green: fls. short-peduncled, yellowish : f r. dark red. Of garden origin. Supposed to be a hybrid of L. quinquelocularis and L. Xylosteum. — L. similis, Hemal Allied to L. japonica. Plant pilose: Lvs.ovate-oblong to lanceolate, ciliate, white-tomentose below, l ¾ -3 ½ in. long: fls. slender peduncled, 2 in. long, white; bracts subulate. Cent, and W. China. Var. Delavayi, Rehd. (L. Delavayi, Franch.). Glabrous, but lvs.tomentose beneath and sometimes slightly ciliate. Only this variety is in cult. — L. splendida, Boiss. Allied to L. implexa and L. etrusca: glabrous, glaucous: fls. in a many-fld., sessile head, yellowish white, tinged purple. Spain. F.S. 11:1130. Gt. 39, p. 65. — L. strophiophora, Franch. Allied to L. hispida. Winter-buds with several scales: lvs.short-stalked, ovate, sparingly hirsute 2-3 ½ in. long: fls. funnelform, white, nearly ¾ in. long, with the lvs. fr. red, distinct. Japan. — L. subaequalis, Rehd. Allied to L. ciliosa. Lvs. elliptic to obovate-oblong, glabrous, 2-5 in. long: fls. funnelform with nearly regular limb; usually only 1 sessile whorl. W. China. — L. tenuiflora, Regel A Winkl.-L. Altmannii. — L. tomentella, Hook. f. & Thoms. Allied to L. thibetica. Erect shrub, to 12 ft.: Lvs.small, ovate to oblong, pubescent: fls. short-peduncled, nodding, small, regular, white: fr. connate, black. Himalayas. B.M. 6486. Tender. — L. translticens, Hort.-L. quinquelocularis. — L. Tschonoskii, Maxim. Allied to L. orientalis. Lvs.elliptic- oblong, acute at both ends, quite glabrous 2-4 in. long: fls. long- stalked, pinkish; bractlets connate, about half as long as ovaries: fr. nearly distinct, red. Japan. — L. utahtnsis, Wata. Closely related to L. canadensis. Lvs.broadly ovate to oblong, obtuse, not ciliate: corolla smaller, less gibbous. Brit. Col. to Ore., Utah, Wyo. — L. Vidalii, Franch. & Sav. Allied to L. alpigena. Lvs.ovate or elliptic, abruptly acuminate, pubescent. 1 ½ -3 in. long: fls. lilac, on glandular peduncles about ½ in. long; bractlets connate, one-half or three-fourths as high as ovaries: fr. red, partly connate. — L. Vilmorinii, Rehd. A garden hybrid between L. deflexicalyx and L. quinquelocularis — L. Webbiana, Wall. Allied to L. alpigena. Lvs.larger, acuminate, pubescent: fls. paler; ovaries separate. Himalayas. S.T.S. 1 : 69. — L. xylosteoides, Tausch. (L. tatarica x L. xylosteum. L. micrantha, Dipp., not Regel. L. caerulescens. Dipp. L. nepalensis, Kirchn.). Lvs.usually rhombic-ovate, broadly cuneate at base, bluish green, slightly pubescent: corolla small, pinkish: fr. red. Garden origin.
}}

==Cultivation==
''Lonicera xylosteum'' ([[Fly Honeysuckle]]) is a common [[Homeopathy|homeopathic]] remedy, used for [[asthma]], breathing difficulties and [[syphilis]]. ''Lonicera periclymenum'' (European honeysuckle) is an uncommon homeopathic remedy, used for irritability with violent outbursts.

''Lonicera japonica'' and ''[[Lonicera maackii]]'' (Amur Honeysuckle) are considered [[invasive species|invasive weeds]] in the [[United States]] and in [[New Zealand]]. Honeysuckle can be controlled by cutting, flaming, or burning the plant to root level and repeating on two-week increments until nutrient reserves in the roots are depleted. Honeysuckle can also be controlled through annual applications of [[glyphosate]], or through grubbing if high labor and soil destruction are not of concern.

Honeysuckles are also eaten by children, who remove the blossom by hand to suck at the sweet nectar in the center.

===Propagation===


===Pests and diseases===


==Species==
Selected species:
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Lonicera acuminata]]''
*''[[Lonicera alberti]]''
*''[[Lonicera albiflora]]'' – White Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera alpigena]]'' – Alpine Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera altmannii]]''
*''[[Lonicera angustifolia]]''
*''[[Lonicera anisocalyx]]''
*''[[Lonicera arborea]]''
*''[[Lonicera arizonica]]'' – Arizona Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera biflora]]''
*''[[Lonicera bournei]]''
*''[[Lonicera brevisepala]]''
*''[[Lonicera buchananii]]''
*''[[Lonicera buddleioides]]''
*''[[Lonicera caerulea]]'' - Blue-berried Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera calcarata]]''
*''[[Lonicera calvescens]]''
*''[[Lonicera canadensis]]'' – American Fly Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera caprifolium]]'' – Perfoliate Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera carnosifolis]]''
*''[[Lonicera chrysantha]]'' – Chrysantha Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera ciliosa]]'' – Orange Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera ciliosissima]]''
*''[[Lonicera cinerea]]''
*''[[Lonice
ra codonantha]]''
*''[[Lonicera confusa]]''
*''[[Lonicera conjugialis]]'' – Purpleflower Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera crassifolia]]''
*''[[Lonicera cyanocarpa]]''
*''[[Lonicera dasystyla]]''
*''[[Lonicera dioica]]'' – Limber Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera elisae]]''
*''[[Lonicera etrusca]]'' – Etruscan honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera fargesii]]''
*''[[Lonicera ferdinandii]]''
*''[[Lonicera ferruginea]]''
*''[[Lonicera flava]]'' – Yellow Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera fragilis]]''
*''[[Lonicera fragrantissima]]'' – Winter Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera fulvotomentosa]]''
*''[[Lonicera glutinosa]]''
*''[[Lonicera graebneri]]''
*''[[Lonicera gynochlamydea]]''
*''[[Lonicera hellenica]]'' – Greek Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera hemsleyana]]''
*''[[Lonicera heterophylla]]''
*''[[Lonicera hildebrandiana]]''
*''[[Lonicera hirsuta]]'' – Hairy Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera hispida]]''
*''[[Lonicera hispidula]]'' – Pink Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera humilis]]''
*''[[Lonicera hypoglauca]]''
*''[[Lonicera hypoleuca]]''
*''[[Lonicera implexa]]'' –
*''[[Lonicera inconspicua]]''
*''[[Lonicera inodora]]''
*''[[Lonicera interrupta]]'' – Chaparral Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera involucrata]]'' – Bearberry honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera japonica]]'' – Japanese Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera jilongensis]]''
*''[[Lonicera kansuensis]]''
*''[[Lonicera kawakamii]]''
*''[[Lonicera korolkowii]]'' – Blueleaf Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera lanceolata]]''
*''[[Lonicera ligustrina]]''
*''[[Lonicera litangensis]]''
*''[[Lonicera longiflora]]''
|
*''[[Lonicera longituba]]''
*''[[Lonicera maackii]]'' – Amur Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera macrantha]]''
*''[[Lonicera macranthoides]]''
*''[[Lonicera maximowiczii]]''
*''[[Lonicera microphylla]]''
*''[[Lonicera minuta]]''
*''[[Lonicera minutifolia]]''
*''[[Lonicera modesta]]''
*''[[Lonicera morrowii]]'' – Morrows honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera mucronata]]''
*''[[Lonicera myrtillus]]''
*''[[Lonicera nervosa]]''
*''[[Lonicera nigra]]'' – Black-berried Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera nitida]]'' – Box honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera nubium]]''
*''[[Lonicera nummulariifolia]]''
*''[[Lonicera oblata]]''
*''[[Lonicera oblongifolia]]'' – Swamp Fly Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera oiwakensis]]''
*''[[Lonicera oreodoxa]]''
*''[[Lonicera orientalis]]''
*''[[Lonicera pampaninii]]''
*''[[Lonicera periclymenum]]'' – European honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera pileata]]'' – Privet honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera pilosa]]'' - Mexican Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera praeflorens]]''
*''[[Lonicera prostrata]]''
*''[[Lonicera pyrenaica]]''
*''[[Lonicera reticulata]]'' – Grape Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera retusa]]''
*''[[Lonicera rhytidophylla]]''
*''[[Lonicera rupicola]]''
*''[[Lonicera ruprechtiana]]'' – Manchurian Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera saccata]]''
*''[[Lonicera schneideriana]]''
*''[[Lonicera semenovii]]''
*''[[Lonicera sempervirens]]'' – Trumpet Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera serreana]]''
*''[[Lonicera setifera]]''
*''[[Lonicera similis]]''
*''[[Lonicera spinosa]]''
*''[[Lonicera splendida]]''
*''[[Lonicera standishii]]'' – Standishs Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera stephanocarpa]]''
*''[[Lonicera subaequalis]]''
*''[[Lonicera subhispida]]''
*''[[Lonicera sublabiata]]''
*''[[Lonicera subspicata]]'' – Southern Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera szechuanica]]''
*''[[Lonicera taipeiensis]]''
*''[[Lonicera tangutica]]''
*''[[Lonicera tatarica]]'' – Tartarian Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera tatarinowii]]''
*''[[Lonicera tomentella]]''
*''[[Lonicera tragophylla]]''
*''[[Lonicera tricalysioides]]''
*''[[Lonicera trichogyne]]''
*''[[Lonicera trichosantha]]''
*''[[Lonicera trichosepala]]''
*''[[Lonicera tubuliflora]]''
*''[[Lonicera utahensis]]'' – Utah Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera villosa]]'' – Mountain Fly Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera virgultorum]]''
*''[[Lonicera webbiana]]''
*''[[Lonicera xylosteum]]'' – Fly Honeysuckle
*''[[Lonicera yunnanensis]]''
|}

==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
__NOTOC__

Apricot

2015-03-05T01:57:59Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Prunus
|species=armeniaca
|common_name=Apricot
|habit=tree
|Min ht box=8
|Min ht metric=m
|Max ht box=12
|Max ht metric=m
|origin=Siberia to China
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=flowers, edible, fruit
|flower_season=early spring
|flowers=pink, white, single
|Min Temp Num=-30
|Temp Metric=°C
|min_zone=3
|max_zone=9
|sunset_zones=3-24 (see text)
|image=Apricots.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Apricot fruit
}}
{{Inc|
Apricot. Rosàceae. A tree and fruit somewhat intermediate between the peach and the plum, grown largely in California and in special localities in the East.

The apricot tree is a round-headed grower, with dark, somewhat peach-like bark, and very broad or almost circular leaves. The fruit, which usually ripens in advance of both the peach and plum, is peach-like in shape and color, with a smoother skin, rich yellow flesh and large flat smooth stone. The flesh is commonly less juicy than that of the peach, and, as a rule, perhaps, of higher quality. The apricots are of three species, all probably native of China or Japan. (1) The common apricot of Europe and America is Prunus Armeniaca: fr. variable, but smooth at maturity, red or yellow, the sweet and firm flesh free, or very nearly so, from the large, smooth, flat stone: tree with a round, spreading too, and a reddish, cherry-like or peach-like bark: lvs. (Fig. 279, right) ovate or round-ovate, with a short point and sometimes a heart-shaped base, thin and bright green, smooth or very nearly so below, as are the gland-bearing stalks, the margins rather obtusely and mostly finely serrate: fls. pink-white and borne singly, sessile or very nearly so, preceding the Lvs. (Fig. 280). The Russian apricot is a hardy but smaller-fruited race of this species. (2) The Japanese apricot, in Japan grown for flowers rather than for fruit, is Prunus Mume: fr. small, yellowish or greenish, the flesh rather hard and dry, and adhering tightly to the pitted stone: tree like the common apricot, but with a grayer or greener bark and duller foliage: Lvs. grayish green, generally narrower (Fig. 279, left) and long- pointed, more or less hairy along the veins below and on the shorter mostly glandless stalk, thick in texture and prominently netted beneath: fls. fragrant, borne singly or in 2's, and sessile (without stalks) ; more lately intro. into this country, chiefly under the name of Bungoume plum. (3) The third species is the purple or black apricot, Prunus dasycarpa, which is little cult. : fr. globular and somewhat plum- like, with a distinct st., pubescent or fuzzy even at maturity, dull dark purple, the sourish soft flesh clinging to the plum-like fuzzy stone: tree round-headed, with much the habit of the common apricot, with Lvs. ovate and more or less tapering at both ends, thin, dull green, on slender and pubescent, mostly glandless, stalks, finely appressed-serrate and hairy on the veins below: fls. large and plum-like, blush, solitary or in 2's, on pubescent stalks ½ in. or more long, and appearing in advance of the leaves. See Prunus for related species. The apricot-plum, Prunus Simonii, is discussed under Plum. The plumcot is a hybrid of plum and apricot, accounted for under Prunus.

East of the Mississippi the apricot is not grown commercially to great extent, although it is a popular fruit for the home orchard and garden. As a commercial crop, it does not seem to be increasing in favor. There are two important reasons for this: the loss of the fruit by spring frosts because of the very early season of bloom, and the great liability to curculio attack.

Possibly the apricot has not yet been given a thorough test. Its value may be more appreciated and the difficulties of its culture lessened when the fruit has received greater study and attention.
The apricot is as hardy as the peach and thrives in similar localities and under the same general cultivation and treatment, but demands very strong soil. The ideal land for this fruit seems to be one that is deep and dry, and loamy or gravelly in character. The rolling loamy lands that are well adapted to apples seem to be well suited to the apricot, if the exposure and location are correct.
The apricot is particularly impatient of wet feet, and many of the failures are due to retentive subsoils. The kind of soil has an important bearing also on the stock to be used.

Particular attention should be given to the location and exposure of the apricot orchard. In the East the best results are secured if the plantation stands on elevated land near a large body of water, for there the spring frosts are not so serious as elsewhere. Generally a somewhat backward exposure, if it can be had, is desirable, to retard blooming. Apricots will be sure to fail in frosty localities.

The apricot should always be given clean culture. For the first two or three years, some hoed crop may be grown between the rows, but after that the trees should be allowed the entire land, particularly if set less than 20 feet apart. Tillage should be stopped late in summer or early in fall to allow the wood to mature thoroughly. It is best to raise a cover-crop in the latter part of July or in August to hasten this maturity and also to protect the roots and to improve the physical properties of the soil. The trees are pruned in essentially the same way as plums. The fruit-buds are borne both on spurs (two are shown in Fig. 281) and also on the wood of the last season's growth on either side of the leaf-bud, as shown in the twin and triplet buds above a in Fig. 281. Each bud contains a single naked flower (Fig. 280). As the fruit begins to swell, the calyx-ring is forced off over the top (Fig. 282) and the injury from curculio may then be expected. The fruit is often borne so close together as to appear to be in clusters (Fig. 283).

When grown under the best conditions, the apricot may be considered to be nearly or quite as productive as the peach. Like other fruit trees, it bears in alternate years, unless the crops are very heavily thinned. It can never be recommended for general or indiscriminate planting. Only the best fruit-growers can succeed with it. Apricots are to be considered as a dessert or fancy fruit, and therefore, should be neatly packed in email and tasty packages.

The varieties mostly in demand in the eastern states in order of preference are: Moorpark, Harris, Alexis, Montgamet, Budd, Early Golden, St. Ambroise, Alexander and Peach. The Royal and Superb are grown to some extent. Of the above-mentioned varieties, the Harris, St. Ambroise, Montgamet, and Early Golden are early as regards season of ripening; the Peach and Moorpark are medium; the Alexander, Alexis and Budd are late. The Alexander, Alexis, Budd and some others belong to the Russian race. Fig. 284 shows a good-shaped apricot.

The apricot is propagated by budding or grafting the desired varieties on the peach or plum stock. On its own root the apricot seems to be less successful, probably because of the peculiar soil-requirements that it demands. The peach seems to give a better union and consequently a better stand, whereas the plum stock gives a tree that is hardier, longer lived, and less subject to attacks of borers. Both Myrobalan and Domestica stocks are used, the preference being for the latter.

The most serious enemy of the apricot is the curculio, the same insect that attacks the fruits of plum and peach. This insect seems to have a particular fondness for the apricot, and as the fruit sets very early, the crop may be expected to be destroyed unless the most vigilant means are employed. The foliage of the apricot, as in the case of the peach, is especially sensitive to the arsenical sprays and therefore entomologists nave hesitated to recommend paris green and arsenate of lead for the control of the curculio. The work of W. M. Scott and A. L. Quaintance, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has shown, however, that arsenate of lead in combination with self- boiled lime-sulfur is successful in controlling this pest on the peach. It is probable that the mixture will be equally successful in controlling the curculio on the apricot. They recommend the use of two pounds of arsenate of lead combined with fifty gallons of self- boiled lime-sulfur applied as follows:

First application.—About the time the calyces, or shucks, are shedding from the young fruit.
Second application.—Two or three weeks later, or about one month after the falling of the petals. Another method of control of this insect is by jarring the trees, in the same way as with plums and peaches, but the work must be even more thoroughly done than with those fruits. The jarring should begin as soon as the blossoms fall, and continue as long as the insects are numerous enough to do serious damage. It will usually be necessary to catch the insects for three to six weeks, two or three times a week, or perhaps even every day. The work must be performed early in the morning, while the curculio is indisposed to fly. The operation consists in knocking the insects from the tree by a quick jar or shake, catching them on a white sheet or in a canvas hopper. The catcher formerly used in western New York was a strong cloth hopper mounted on a wheelbarrow-like frame, and run on two wheels. The hopper converged into a tin box, into which the curculios rolled as they fell on the sheet. One man wheeled the device, by barrow-like handles, under the tree, then dropped the handles and jarred the tree; or sometimes two men went with a machine, one wheeling it and the other jarring the trees. If the work of spraying, as above recommended, is done thoroughly, it will probably not be necessary to use this jarring device in addition; and the device is now going out of use.

The apricot is often trained on walls, where the fruit reaches the highest perfection. Care should be taken that the wall does not face the east or the south, or the early-forced flowers may be caught by frost. An over- hanging-cornice will aid greatly in protecting from frost.

The apricot in California is one of the leading commercial fruits. It was apparently introduced by the Mission Fathers, for Vancouver found it at the Santa Clara Mission in 1792. However, there is no relation between this early introduction and the expansion that quickly followed the American occupation, because the Mission Fathers had only seedling fruits, while the early American planters, shortly before the gold discovery, introduced the best French and English varieties, and were delighted to find that these sorts, usually given some protection in the Old World, grew with surprising thrift of tree and size of fruit in valley situations in California in the open air. Upon these facts the apricot rose to wide popularity. The acreage has steadily increased during the last fifty years, and with particularly swift rate during the last twenty years, until the number of trees reported in 1899 was about three millions, occupying upwards of forty thousand acres of land. Since then, however, the acreage has not increased, because the crop is irregular on account of frost injuries in some districts. The fruit is sold fresh, canned, dried and in crystallized forms, in all the regions of the United States, in England and on the Continent, where, by reason of its superior size and acceptable manner of curing, it has achieved notable popularity. The year 1905 was the greatest thus far in amount of dried product realized, viz., 36,000,000 pounds. The year 1911 was greatest in amount of canned product, which reached upwards of 758,325 cases, each containing two dozen 2½-pound cans. The shipment of fresh apricots out of California during the summer of 1910 was 290 carloads.

The chief part of the apricot crop of California is grown in the interior valleys. In the low places in these valleys, however, the fruit is liable to be injured and sometimes almost wholly destroyed by spring frosts, although the trees make excellent growth. In foothill situations adjacent to these valleys, there is also serious danger of frost above an elevation of about 1,500 feet above sea-level, and the tree is rarely planted for commercial purposes. In southern California the apricot succeeds both in the coast and interior valleys. But along the coast northward, excepting the very important producing regions of the Alameda and Santa Clara valleys, eastward, and southward from the Bay of San Francisco, the apricot is but little grown, owing to frost troubles. In respect to these, the apricot is somewhat less subject to harm than the almond, but it is less hardy than the peach, and has, therefore, a much narrower range of adaptation. The average date of the blooming of apricot varieties is about two weeks later than that of the almonds. The apricot is adapted to a wide range of soils, because to the rather heavy, moist loams which its own root tolerates, it adds the lighter tastes of the peach root, upon which it is very largely propagated. However, attempts to carry the apricot upon heavier, moister soils by working it upon the plum root have not been very successful, owing to the dwarfing of the tree; and the movement toward the light, dry loams, by working upon the almond root, has failed because the attachment is insecure, and the trees are very liable to be snapped off at the joining, even though they may attain bearing age before the mishap occurs. The apricot root itself is a favorite morsel with rodents, and is for that reason not largely used. The mainstay for the apricot, then, is the peach root, and the soils which this root enjoys in localities sufficiently frost-free are, therefore, to a great extent the measure of the apricot area.

Apricot trees are produced by budding on peach or apricot seedlings during their first summer's growth in the nursery row, from pits planted when t lie ground is moist and warm, at any time in the preceding winter. When there is a great demand for trees, planting in orchard is sometimes done with dormant buds, but ordinarily the trees are allowed to make one summer's growth in the nursery. The trees branch during the first year's growth from the bud, and usually come to the planter with a good choice of low-starting branches, from which to shape the low-headed tree which is universally preferred. The method of securing such a tree is identical with that already described for the almond, but the treatment of the tree after reaching bearing age, in its third year, is very different from the after-treatment of the almond. The apricot is a rampant grower and most profuse bearer. Unless kept continually in check it will quickly rush out of reach, and will destroy its low shoots and spurs by the dense shade of its .thick, beautiful foliage. There is continually necessary, then, a certain degree of thinning of the surplus shoots and shortening of the new growth, to continue the system of low branching, to relieve the tree from an excess of bearing wood, and to avoid small fruit and exhaustion of the tree, resulting in alternate years of bearing. In the coast regions, where the tree makes moderate wood- growth, it can be kept in good form and bearing by regular winter pruning. In warmer regions, where the tendency is to exuberant wood-growth, the main pruning is done in the summer, immediately after the fruit is gathered. This has a tendency to check wood- growth and promote fruit-bearing, and where the main cutting is done in the summer, winter pruning is reduced to thinning out shoots, to prevent the tree from becoming too dense and to lessen the work of hand-thinning of the fruit later on. In addition, however, to the most intelligent pruning, much fruit must be removed by hand when there is a heavy set of it, in order to bring the fruit to a size satisfactory to shippers or canners, and to reach the highest grades, if drying is practised. California apricot orchards are all grown with clean tillage, for the main purpose of moisture conservation. In regions of good rainfall and sufficiently retentive loams no irrigation is required; good tillage will suffice for the production of large fruit and perfection of fruit-buds for the following year. As the trees are becoming older and bearing larger crops the demand for moisture increases, and the use of irrigation water is growing. In most places, however, one irrigation is sufficient, and that is given after fruit-gathering, to carry the tree through the last half of its season's work. In the regularly irrigated regions of the state, water is periodically applied through the growing season, in such amount and at such intervals as the local climate and soils require.

Although probably all the good varieties of the apricot in the world have been introduced into California in the last half-century, and scores of selected seedlings of local origin have been widely tested, the varieties that have survived the tests and are now widely grown are comparatively few in number. Most of the rejected varieties met this fate because of shy bearing, and those which now constitute the bulk of the crop are very regular and full bearers, under rational treatment. A local seedling, the Pringle, was for many years chiefly grown for the earliest ripening, but this has recently been largely superseded by another local seedling, the Newcastle, which is of superior size and about as early. The European varieties, Large Early and Early Golden, are fine in a few localities where they bear well, and do better in southern California than elsewhere. The universal favorite is the Royal; probably three-fourths of all the trees in the state are of this variety, though recently the area of the Blenheim has been increasing largely. The Hemskirk stands next to the Blenheim in popularity. The Peach is largely grown in the Sacramento Valley. The best apricot grown in California is the Moorpark; in size and lusciousness, when well ripened, it heads the list. It is, however, rather shy in bearing, and is forsaken for this fault in most regions. It shows the best behavior in the Santa Clara Valley, and is there retained, in spite of frequent lapses, because of the high prices which it commands at the canneries. About a dozen other varieties are carried in small number by the nurserymen to meet limited local demands.

Apricots for canning and drying are graded according to size: Extra, not less than 2¼ inches in diameter; No. 1, 2 inches; No. 2, 1½ inches; No. 3, 1 inch. The first three grades must be sound, clean and free from blemish, and No. 3 must be of good merchantable quality. The shippers and canners require well-colored but only firm-ripe fruit, because both the long rail transportation and the canning process require it; soft-ripe fruit will neither can nor carry. For drying, riper fruit is used, and yet over-ripeness has to be guarded against to avoid too dark color. For canning, the fruit must be carefully hand-picked; for drying, much is shaken from the trees. The drying process consists in cutting the fruit in halves longitudinally, dropping out the pits and placing the halves, cavity uppermost, upon light wooden trays. Breaking or tearing the fruit open will not do; it must show clean-cut edges. When the trays are covered they are placed in a tight compartment, usually called a "sulfur box," though it may be of considerable size, and the fruit is exposed to the fumes of slowly burning sulfur, to ensure its drying to the light golden color which is most acceptable to the trade. The production of the right color is the end in view, and different dryers regulate the amount of sulfur and the length of exposure according to the condition of their fruit and their judgment of what it needs. The exposure varies from half an hour to two or three hours, according to circumstances. After sulfuring, the trays are taken to open ground, and the fruit is cured in the sun. Only a very small fraction of the California product of evaporated apricots is cured in an evaporator. It requires about six pounds of fresh apricots to make one pound of cured fruit.

A moderate estimate of the yield of apricots might be placed at seven and one-half tons to the acre; extreme yields are far away from this both ways.

The apricot is, as a rule, a very healthy tree in California. It is, however, subject to injury by scale insects of the lecanium group in some parts of the state. During recent years there has been increasing injury by a shot-hole fungus, which perforates the leaves and makes ugly pustules upon the fruit. Such fruit is unfit for canning except the fruit be peeled, which is little done as yet. It also makes low-grade dried product. This fungus can be repressed by fungicides of the copper class.
}}

The '''Apricot''' (''Prunus armeniaca'', "Armenian plum" in Latin, [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Armeniaca vulgaris'' Lam."Tsiran" ծիրան in [[Armenia]]n) is a species of ''[[Prunus]]'', classified with the [[plum]] in the [[subgenus]] ''Prunus''.

[[Image:Turkey.Pasa Baglari005.jpg|thumb|right|Apricot tree]]
Common Apricot. Small round-topped tree with reddish bark much like that of the peach tree: lvs. ovate to round-ovate, sometimes slightly cordate at the base, abruptly short-pointed, glabrous (at least above), closely serrate, the stalks stout and gland-bearing: fls. pinkish, solitary and sessile or very nearly so, appearing from lateral buds of last year's growth (sometimes on short year-old spurs) before the lvs.: fr. variable, nearly smooth when ripe, short-stalked like a peach, usually somewhat flattened, mostly yellow and overlaid more or less with red, the stone flat and smooth, ridged or sulcate on one edge. Probably Siberia (Dahuria, Manchuria) to China as a native plant. It early reached Eu., where it was once supposed to be native of Armenia, whence the name Armeniaca. The Russian apricot is a hardy race of this species. Var. pendula, Dipp., has hanging or pendulous twigs. Var. variegata, Hort., has white-variegated foliage.—P. Armeniaca is apparently widespread in farther Asia and it is variable. By some authors the main forms are separated as species but the differences appear to be too unimportant or inconstant for clear definition and they are here retained as varieties.{{SCH}}

==Cultivation==
[[Image:apricotfresh.JPG|thumb|left|Fresh apricots on display.]]
[[Image:Dried apricot 01 Pengo.jpg|thumb|right|Dried organic apricot. The colour is dark because it has not been treated with [[sulfur dioxide]] (E220).]]

===Propagation===
Grafting for true offspring. Seed. Apricot cultivars are most often [[grafting|grafted]] on plum or peach rootstocks.

===Pests and diseases===
Susceptible to bacterial canker and blast, bacterial spot and crown gall. Susceptible to fungal diseases such as brown rot, Alternaria spot and fruit rot, and powdery mildew. Nematodes and viral diseases, can also be a problem, including graft-transmissible problems.

==Varieties==
Apricots and plums can hybridize with each other and produce fruit that are variously called pluots, plumcots, or apriums.

Var. sibirica, Koch (P. sibirica, Linn. Armeniaca sibirica, Pers.).Siberian Apricot. Bush or small tree, 10 or 12 ft. high: lvs. small and glabrous, or sometimes sparingly bearded beneath, ovate to rounded, long- pointed, unequally crenate-serrate: fls. white or pink, appearing early in the season and usually in great profusion, subsessile, the calyx minutely puberulent: fr. globular, rarely more than 1/2in. diam., vellow with a reddish cheek, scarcely fleshy, practically inedible, finally splitting; stone smooth, very sharp-edged. Mongolia, Dahuria. L.B.C. 17:1627.—Sometimes planted as an ornamental bush.{{SCH}}

Var. mandshurica, Maxim. (P. mandshurica, Koehne). Lvs. rounded, subcordate or cuneate at base, at apex long-cuspidate and acute, margin strongly double-toothed, the teeth sharp and twice longer than wide: peduncle long (about 1/4 in.): fr. nearly globular, scarcely 1 in. long, yellow, red-spotted, succulent and sweet; stone small and smooth, the margin obtuse, the seed sweet. Manchuria.—Distinguished by the narrow sharp teeth and double serration of the lvs. ; kept as a distinct species by some authors.{{SCH}}

Var. Ansu, Maxim. (P. Ansu, Komar.). Lvs. broad- elliptic, at base short-cuneate, at apex acuminate, very glabrous, the margins crenate-serrate: peduncles hispid: fls. twin: fr. subglobose, deeply umbilicate or sulcate, red, tomentose, the flesh grayish brown and sweet and free from the minutely reticulated stone which has one very sharp edge. Japan; cult.—Retained as a separate species by some, being marked by the cuneate base of the lf.{{SCH}}

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[List of apricot diseases]]
*[[Apricot kernel]]
*[[Pluot]]

==External links==

__NOTOC__

Peach

2015-03-05T01:57:16Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Prunus
|species=persica
|common_name=Peach
|habit=tree
|Min ht box=4
|Min ht metric=m
|Max ht box=10
|Max ht metric=m
|origin=China
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moist, moderate
|features=deciduous, flowers, edible, fruit
|flower_season=early spring
|flowers=pink, white, single, double
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=4
|max_zone=on
|image=Autumn Red peaches.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Autumn Red Peaches, cross section
}}
The '''peach''' and the fuzzless peach known as the '''nectarine''' (''Prunus persica'') are a species of ''[[Prunus]]'' native to [[China]] that bears an edible juicy fruit also called a peach. It is a [[deciduous]] [[tree]] growing to 4–10 m tall, belonging to the subfamily [[Prunoideae]] of the family [[Rosaceae]]. It is classified with the [[almond]] in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'' within the genus ''Prunus'', distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell.''

The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[lanceolate]], 7–16 cm long (3–6 in), 2–3 cm broad, [[pinnate]]ly veined. The [[flower]]s are produced in early spring before the leaves; they are solitary or paired, 2.5–3 cm diameter, pink, with five petals. The [[fruit]] has yellow or whitish flesh, a delicate aroma, and a skin that is either velvety ('''peaches''') or smooth ('''nectarines''') in different [[cultivar]]s. The flesh is very delicate and easily bruised in some cultivars, but is fairly firm in some commercial varieties, especially when green. The single, large seed is red-brown, oval shaped, approximately 1.4–2 cm long, and is surrounded by a wood-like husk. Peaches, along with [[cherry|cherries]], [[plum]]s and [[apricot]]s, are stone fruits ([[drupe]]s).

The scientific name ''persica'', along with the word "peach" itself and its cognates in many European languages, derives from an early European belief that peaches were native to [[Persian Empire|Persia]] (now [[Iran]]). The modern botanical consensus is that they originate in China, and were introduced to Persia and the [[Mediterranean region]] along the [[Silk Road]] before Christian times.<ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.</ref> Cultivated peaches are divided into [[Drupe|clingstone]]s and [[Drupe|freestone]]s, depending on whether the flesh sticks to the stone or not; both can have either white or yellow flesh. Peaches with white flesh typically are very sweet with little [[acid]]ity, while yellow-fleshed peaches typically have an acidic tang coupled with sweetness, though this also varies greatly. Both colours often have some red on their skin. Low-acid white-fleshed peaches are the most popular kinds in [[China]], [[Japan]], and neighbouring [[Asia]]n countries, while [[Europe]]ans and [[North America]]ns have historically favoured the acidic, yellow-fleshed kinds.

==Cultivation==
Peach plants grow very well in a fairly limited range, since they have a [[chilling requirement]] that tropical areas cannot satisfy, and they are not very cold-hardy. The trees themselves can usually tolerate temperatures to around −26 °C to −30 °C, although the following season's flower buds are usually killed at these temperatures, leading to no crop that summer. Flower bud kill begins to occur between −15 °C and −25 °C depending on the [[cultivar]] (some are more cold-tolerant than others) and the timing of the cold, with the buds becoming less cold tolerant in late winter.<ref>Szalay, L., Papp, J., & Szaóbo, Z. (2000). Evaluation of frost tolerance of peach varieties in artificial freezing tests. In: Geibel, M., Fischer, M., & Fischer, C. (eds.). Eucarpia symposium on Fruit Breeding and Genetics. ''Acta Horticulturae'' 538. [http://www.actahort.org/books/538/538_71.htm Abstract.]</ref> Certain cultivars are more tender and others can tolerate a few degrees colder. In addition, a lot of summer heat is required to mature the crop, with mean temperatures of the hottest month between 20 °C and 30 °C. Another problematic issue in many peach-growing areas is spring frost. The trees tend to flower fairly early in spring. The blooms often can be damaged or killed by freezes; typically, if temperatures drop below about −4 °C, most flowers will be killed. However, if the flowers are not fully open, they can tolerate a couple of degrees colder. In [[Vietnam]], the most famous variety of peach fruit product is grown in Mẫu Sơn commune, [[Lộc Bình District|Lộc Bình district]], [[Lang Son Province|Lạng Sơn]] province.

Important historical peach-producing areas are [[China]], [[Iran]], [[France]], and the [[Mediterranean]] countries like [[Italy]], [[Spain]] and [[Greece]]. More recently, the [[United States]] (where the three largest producing states are [[California]], [[South Carolina]],<ref>Fort Valley State University College of Agriculture: [http://www.ag.fvsu.edu/publicat/commoditysheets/fvsu001.htm Peaches]</ref> and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]<ref>Georgia Peach: [http://www.american.edu/TED/georgiapeach.htm Georgia Peach Study]</ref>), [[Canada]] ([[British Columbia]]), and [[Australia]] (the [[Riverland]] region) have also become important; peach growing in the Niagara Peninsula of Ontario, Canada, was formerly intensive but ended in 2008 when the last fruit cannery in Canada was closed by the proprietors. [[Oceanic climate]] areas like the [[Pacific Northwest]] and coastline of North Western [[Europe]] are generally not satisfactory for peach-growing due to inadequate summer heat, though they are sometimes grown trained against south-facing walls to catch extra heat from the sun. Trees grown in a sheltered and south-facing position in the southeast of England are capable of producing both flowers and a large crop of fruit.

For home gardeners, semi-dwarf (3 to 4 m) and dwarf (2 to 3 m) varieties have been developed by grafting desirable cultivars onto dwarfing rootstock. Fruit size is not affected. Another mutation is flowering peaches, selected for ornamental display rather than fruit production.

Depending on climate and cultivar, peach harvest can occur from late May into August; harvest from each tree lasts about a week.

[[Image:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|thumb|300px|The developmental sequence of a nectarine over a 7½ month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see [[:Image:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|image page]] for further information)]]

Peaches should be located in full sun, and with good air flow. This allows cold air to flow away on frosty nights and keeps the area cool in summer. Peaches are best planted in early winter, as this allows time for the roots to establish and be able to sustain the new spring growth. When planting in rows, plant north-south.

For optimum growth, peach trees require a constant supply of water. This should be increased shortly before the harvest. The best tasting fruit is produced when the peach is watered throughout the season. [[Drip irrigation]] is ideal, at least one dripper per tree. Although it is better to use multiple drippers around the tree, this is not necessary. A quarter of the root being watered is sufficient.

Peaches have a high nutrient requirement, needing more [[nitrogen]] than most other fruit trees. An NPK [[fertilizer]] can be applied regularly, and an additional mulch of poultry manure in autumn soon after the harvest will benefit the tree. If the leaves of the peach are yellow or small, the tree needs more nitrogen. [[Blood meal]] and [[bone meal]], 3–5 kg per mature tree, or calcium ammonium nitrate, 0.5–1 kg, are suitable fertilisers. This also applies if the tree is putting forth little growth.

If the full amount of peaches is left, they will be under-sized and lacking in sugar and flavour. In dry conditions, extra watering is important. The fruit should be thinned when they have reached 2 cm in diameter, usually about 2 months after flowering. Fresh fruit are best consumed on the day of picking, and do not keep well. They are best eaten when the fruit is slightly soft, having aroma, and heated by the sun.

===Propagation===
Most peach trees sold by nurseries are named cultivars [[Shield budding|budded]] onto a suitable rootstock. It is also possible to grow a tree from either a peach or nectarine seed, but the fruit quality of the resulting tree will be very unpredictable.

===Pests and diseases===
{{Main|List of peach and nectarine diseases}}
The trees are prone to a disease called [[leaf curl]], which usually does not directly affect the fruit but does reduce the crop yield by partially defoliating the tree. The fruit is very susceptible to [[brown rot]], or a dark reddish spot.

==Varieties==

===Nectarines===
[[Image:Nectarines summer 2006.jpg|thumb|upright|Nectarines]]
The nectarine is a [[cultivar group]] of peach that has a smooth skin. Though fuzzy peaches and nectarines are regarded commercially as different fruits, with nectarines often erroneously believed to be a crossbreed between peaches and [[plum]]s, or a "peach with a plum skin", they belong to the same species as peaches. Several genetic studies have concluded in fact that nectarines are created due to a [[recessive gene]], whereas a fuzzy peach skin is [[dominant gene|dominant]].<ref name=osu>Oregon State University: [http://food.oregonstate.edu/faq/uffva/nectarine2.html peaches and nectarines]</ref> Nectarines have arisen many times from peach trees, often as [[bud sport]]s.

As with peaches, nectarines can be white or yellow, and clingstone or freestone. On average, nectarines are slightly smaller and sweeter than peaches, but with much overlap.<ref name=osu/> The lack of skin fuzz can make nectarine skins appear more reddish than those of peaches, contributing to the fruit's plum-like appearance. The lack of down on nectarines' skin also means their skin is more easily bruised than peaches.

The history of the nectarine is unclear; the first recorded mention in English is from 1616,<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''</ref> but they had probably been grown much earlier within the native range of the peach in central and eastern Asia.

==Gallery==

<gallery perrow=5>
Image:Peach flowers.jpg|Peach flower
Image:Flavorcrest peaches.jpg|Flavorcrest peaches
Image:Autumn Red peaches.jpg|Autumn Red peaches
Image:Peach1web.jpg|Peach (cultivar 'Berry') – watercolour 1895
Image:PeachesInSyrup.jpg|Peaches in syrup
Image:Durazno 2310.JPG
File:Yellow peach and cross section.jpg
File:Yellow nectarine and cross section.jpg
Image:Pfirsiche.jpg|Harvested peaches
File:White peach and cross section edit.jpg|White peach and cross section
File:Peachblossoms3800ppx.JPG|A peach tree in blossom
File:Nectarine branch surachit.jpg|A nectarine branch in blossom
File:Youngpeach3800ppx Cropped.jpg|Developing Fruit
</gallery>

==Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture==
{{Inc|
Peach. The tree and fruit of Prunus Persica (or Persica vulgaris),
widely cultivated in the United States and parts of Canada for home
use and market.

In the northern prairie states and on the plains, and in the colder
parts of the mountain regions of the West, the peach is little grown
or is even altogether absent; yet the range of adaptability is
constantly extending as the local conditions and requirements become
better known. There is less dependence on "fruit-belts" than
formerly, in which some special favor of climate or location was
supposed to exist. Some parts of New England are well adapted to
commercial peach-culture. Parts of Canada bordering the Great Lakes,
and regions in Nova Scotia, are prominent peach districts. Varieties
of special adaptability to climate and useful also for particular
purposes have arisen in recent years; and the requirements of the
peach are now better understood than formerly. The range of its
cultivation will probably be considerably broadened in years to come.
The discussion of the peach is here comprised in four articles:

Page

The culture of the peach (M. A. Blake) 2492

Peach-culture in the South (J. H. Hale) 2500

Peach-growing in California (George C. Roeding). 2503

Protecting peach trees in cold climates (W. Pad-
dockj 2504

The culture of the peach.
The marked feature in the development of the peach industry in the
United States since about 1900 has been the extension of the areas of
commercial peach- production because of the introduction of hardier
varieties such as Carman, the discovery of materials and methods that
make certain the control of peach- scab and brown-rot, and the
organization of fast-freight and refrigerator-car service that
permits of successful long-distance shipment of this perishable
fruit.

The introduction of the San Jose scale was the cause of the
destruction of hundreds of thousands of peach trees throughout the
country from about 1900 to 1907, the period of greatest damage
varying to some extent in each district. The growers who persisted in
the business were those who had the capital, energy, and persistence
to take up the new problem of spraying, and these men may
appropriately be termed the pioneers of the modern peach business.

The necessity of spraying to control the scale also focused the
attention of the growers upon all other factors of peach-production
except marketing, which for the time presented few difficulties
because of the great reduction in the number of bearing trees and the
ability of the local markets to absorb much of the crop produced.

Peach-scab and brown-rot caused serious damage to the crop annually
in central and southern peach districts until the self-boiled
lime-sulfur summer spray was proved to be a successful remedy.

The development of large commercial areas at long distances from
market has resulted in better grading and packing. The Georgia
six-basket carrier has become the popular shipping package from
southern New Jersey to Georgia, Alabama, and Texas. (Fig. 2707.)
Innumerable changes and improvements in the growing and handling of
the crop have occurred within the last ten years.

The United States Census reports show many interesting facts in
connection with the extent and development of the peach industry. A
few trees are found in every state in the Union. According to the
Census of 1910 only three states, Wyoming, North Dakota, and Montana,
have less than 5,000 trees. Five other states, Minnesota, South
Dakota, Wisconsin, Maine, and Vermont, have less than 10,000 trees.

The most significant fact, however, is that twenty-six states
reported a total of more than 1,000,000 bearing trees each, which
definitely shows the extended area over which this crop is produced
to some commercial degree. The Census for 1910 shows Georgia to lead
in the total number of bearing trees with 10,609,119; Texas is second
with 9,737,827; and California is third with 7,829,011 trees. On the
basis of total number of trees, however, Texas leads with 12,696,640;
California is second with 12,238,- 573, and Georgia is third with
12,140,486.

The Census reports also indicate the general trend of the industry in
no uncertain way. In 1890, five states led prominently in the total
number of bearing trees, as follows: Maryland, 6,113,287; Kansas,
4,876,- 311; Delaware, 4,521,623; Texas, 4,486,901; and New Jersey,
4,413,568. The greatest peach district in the country at that time
was comprised by the states of Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey,
with a total of more than 15,000,000 trees.

The three leading states in 1900 were, Michigan with 8.104,415 trees,
Georgia with 7.668,639 trees, and California with 7,472,393 trees.
The states of Maryland, Delaware, and New Jersey, which
geographically comprise one district, reported a total of a little
more than 9,000,000 trees, the San Jose scale and other factors
having reduced the total about 6,000,000 trees. Yet as a peach
district, this still held its place as having the greatest total
number of trees.

The Census of 1910, however, shows that this number was greatly
reduced during the period from 1899 to 1909, having less than
4,000,000 bearing trees. This great reduction and loss was due
largely to the introduction of the scale. Michigan reports a loss
during this period of more than 5,000,000 trees, and Ohio more than
3,000,000. The following states made gains during this period: New
Hampshire, Vermont, Illinois, Idaho, Missouri, Nebraska, South
Carolina, Georgia, Tenneassee, Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas,
Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Washington, and California. Summarized to
a few words, the Census indicates that while the Middle- Atlantic and
Great Lakes districts were suffering severe destruction of trees, the
southern and western districts were developing. These facts lead one
to wonder as to how much of a part the San Jose scale played in the
development of these latter districts, and whether such development
could have maintained itself in some cases without the good markets
and high prices occasioned by the widespread destruction of trees in
the East.

The Census of 1910 is of particular value in showing the recent trend
of the industry, because the number of trees in bearing and those not
in bearing were tabulated separately.

The western states, Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Washington are
increasing their plantings. The young trees not in bearing in
Massachusetts, Michigan, and New Jersey were greatly in excess of
those producing fruit in 1909. West Virginia has also been planting
peaches extensively in recent years.

The extensive planting of peaches in the eastern and Middle Atlantic
states, following the earlier destruction by yellows, was only just
beginning in 1909, when the last Census was taken. Since that time,
millions of trees have been planted and have come into bearing. As a
result, the marketing factor became the most important peach problem
in 1915. Southern districts can no longer expect the prices of former
years in the great eastern markets, the Middle West is growing
quantities of peaches and so also are the states along the Great
Lakes. The problem at the beginning of 1916 is where and how can the
crops from these trees be marketed profitably.

In any broad discussion of the peach regions of North America, the
Ontario district of Canada should not be overlooked. Situated south
of the western end of Lake Ontario, climatic conditions are so
modified that such yellow-fleshed varieties of peaches as St. John,
Fitzgerald, Elberta, and Niagara can be grown successfully in large
quantities.

The northern limits of peach-production extend from the southeastern
shore of Lake Ontario along the southern shore of Lake Erie and the
eastern shore of Lake Michigan as far north as the Grand Traverse on
the 44th parallel. This area is often termed the "Great Lakes Belt."

Beginning in southwestern and central Massachusetts, another
commercial peach area extends across Connecticut, Long Island, the
Hudson River Valley, New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, and
Maryland. The Coastal Plain areas in New Jersey, Delaware, and along
the eastern shore of Maryland are favorable to peach-production, and
the fruit is grown to within a few miles of the seaboard. Farther
south, the Coastal Plains area is unfavorable to successful
commercial production and the industry is transferred to the Piedmont
area across Virginia, North Carolina, and southward to the Gulf
districts in Alabama and Texas. Florida has too warm a climate to
suit the common standard varieties of peach and has developed a
special type from the South China race.

The central or Mississippi Valley district extends from Texas across
Oklahoma and Arkansas, Missouri and Kansas to Iowa, Illinois and
Indiana, practically connecting with the Great Lakes area. The
Pacific Coast Belt includes, California, and areas in Nevada, Utah,
Colorado,Oregon, and Washington. There are many areas in these
so-called "peach- belts" that are not favorable to peach-production,
but they indicate the general grouping of the industry.

Varieties and types.

All of the common forms of the peach belong to the species Prunus
Persica, but are sometimes grouped under the name Amygdalus Persica.
The flat or Peen- to peach is P. platycarpa. The United States
Department of Agriculture, through its Bureau of Foreign Plant and
Seed Introduction, has secured a form of peach from China known as A.
Davidiana which is used there as a stock for certain cherries. It is
said to be very hardy and may prove of value in breeding work, or as
a stock for the peach. Its fruit is not attractive enough for use as
it is now developed. Several other forms or types have been collected
in China by Frank N. Meyer, of the Department of Agriculture, and
sent to the United States for propagation and study. See the article
Prunus.

The common types of peaches have been grouped into certain races.
Onderdonk (Rept. Commr. Agric.,1887) and also Price have placed North
American peaches in five groups: (1) The Peen-to or flat peach race,
comprising the variety known as Peen-to (Fig. 2784), and also the
Angel, and Waldo; (2) the South China race, with oval long-pointed
fruit with deep suture near the base, represented by the Honey (Fig.
2785); (3) the Spanish or Indian race, with very late yellow firm
often streaked fruit, represented by various southern varieties, as
the Cabler (Fig. 2786), Columbia, Galveston, Lulu, Texas, and
Victoria; (4) the North China race, with large mostly cling or
semi-cling fruit and very large flat leaves, represented by the
Greensboro, Waddell, and Carman; (5) the Persian race, including the
common varieties of the mid-country and the North, as Crawford (Fig.
2787), Mountain Rose, and the like. The so-called North China and
Persian types of peaches are now very much mixed in commerical
varieties.

We have been content to say that Elberta (Fig. 2788) is of the North
China type, when it is plainly mixed with the Persian, and when
studied carefully its characters resemble the Persian type even more
than they do the North China. Two types of peach blossoms are
commonly recognized (as shown in Fig. 2790), yet there are three
distinct types, the large bloom, typical of Greensboro and Waddell
and the North China type, the medium bloom of such varieties as
Elberta and Belle, and the small bloom of Early and Late Crawford,
and others. The botanical significance of these types is not well
understood.

A double-flowered peach (Fig. 2789) is sometimes cultivated as an
ornamental, as well as a purple-leaved form. A form of the cultivated
peach growing wild near Pekin, large-flowered, is shown in Fig. 2791.

Propagation.

The peach is universally propagated by means of the pits or seeds. A
few are sometimes secured by budding upon plum or even cherry stocks,
but this dwarfs the tree and makes it susceptible to various stock
troubles.

So-called natural seedling pits or seeds gathered in Tennessee and
North Carolina are said to be the best for propagation work. Such
seeds are considered to be more viable and to .produce hardier stock
than pits from cultivated varieties. Considerable quantities of
so-called "seedling" seeds have undoubtedly been secured from canning
factories and represent commercial varieties, although one can
readily detect the difference between them. It has not been
definitely shown that wild seedling pits will produce a stock that is
any more hardy than that which might be secured from the pits of some
of our hardier cultivated varieties. Seeds or pits for propagation
are treated in two ways. Where severe freezing weather occurs they
are commonly planted in the autumn in nursery rows from 4 to 6 feet
apart. The pits are scattered a few inches apart in the rows and
covered to a depth of about 2 inches. In less severe climates, the
pits are stratified very shallow in autumn, are dug up in the spring
and the kernels separated from the soil and shells, and planted in
nursery rows. By this method, any pit or seed which is not cracked
open by the action of the frost may be broken by the use of a hammer.
Pits not affected by the frost usually fail to grow the first season,
but may do so the second year.

The pits should be planted in good soil and be given careful
cultivation so that the seedlings will be at least 24 to 30 inches
high by the latter part of August of the first season, and in
condition for budding. The buds are inserted the latter part of
August or early in September, and simply become united with the
seedling stock without making any growth. Early the following spring
the seedlings are cut back just above the inserted buds, and all
shoots developing from buds of the stock itself are kept rubbed off.

In this way the desired bud develops into a vigorous well-branched
shoot or tree which should be from 3 to 6 feet high at the close of
the season's growth, and is ready for sale that fall or the following
spring. So-called "June buds" are secured by budding vigorous
seedlings in June and selling the resulting trees in the fall or the
spring following. Such trees are smaller and are seldom equal to
one-year-old trees except possibly for planting in the South. In Fig.
2792, at the left, is a well-branched one-year-old nursery tree: at
the right a slender tree of the same age and height, and in the
center a June bud.

The question as to whether trees should be propagated north of the
region in which they are grown is a common one. Evidence has shown
that it makes little difference as to the latitude in which the trees
are raised if they are well grown and are free from injurious insects
and diseases. It is generally best, however, to purchase trees as
near at hand as good ones may be secured.

The ideal climate for the peach is one in which the winter extremes
do not go much lower than zero at any time, and no warm periods of
many days' duration occur in winter. The absence of late spring
frosts and presence of bright sun during the ripening period are also
important essentials. Extremes of either warmth or cold in winter are
almost equally detrimental.

Soil.
The peach will succeed upon a wide range of soil- types, but prefers
a sandy loam. It will also develop exceptionally well upon gravelly
or stony loams, if deep and well drained. Heavy poorly drained soils
should be avoided. It also thrives on sands.

Site and elevation.

The type of peach-growing business one expects to engage in has much
to do with the kind of location and site that should be chosen.
A successful local market business may be established even upon
disconnected areas and at some disadvantage. But extensive peach
plantings for supplying the wholesale markets should be planted upon
uniformly favorable areas near good shipping-points and where plenty
of labor is available. Locations should be sought where peaches can
be grown and placed on the market cheaply because of large annual
yields and low cost of production and marketing.

The elevation above sea-level at which peaches are planted in any
region is a most important matter. It is not sufficient that the
orchard be on land that is higher than its immediate surroundings. In
some localities an elevation of 150 to 200 feet is sufficient to
secure good yields, while in others one must seek altitudes of 800 to
900 feet, or even more, for successful crops. The site of the orchard
should also be readily accessible, so that fertilizers, spray
materials, and packages can be delivered cheaply and so that the crop
may be picked, packed, and shipped economically. Uneven land broken
up by gullies or wet areas is to be avoided, as well as hilly areas
that are difficult to reach by team and expensive to manage.

The particular exposure is not important in a relatively flat
country. In hilly or mountainous sections, it may become so. Severely
exposed situations should be avoided, as well as warm pocketed areas.

Some protection from severe prevailing winds is most desirable and
does not increase the danger of too early blooming if good
air-drainage prevails.

Establishing the orchard.

A well-defined plan should be drawn up before planting is begun. The
peach is a relatively short-lived tree, and packing-houses and
permanent buildings should be located in connection with roadways and
plantings so as to result in the most economical procedure of the
work.

The selection of varieties must be made previous to the planting of
the orchard. Specific recommendations for each district cannot be
given in a brief article, but some general statements as to the
variety question follow. Yellow-fleshed peaches are preferred by most
markets. Such varieties as Mountain Rose, Reeves, Stump, Oldmixon,
and the Crawfords are falling behind in popularity except in a few
localities. Better varieties are needed commercially. Carman and
Belle (of Georgia) are rapidly gaining in commercial importance. New
varieties, such as the J. H. Hale, are demanding recognition. Elberta
is still the most popular single variety. It is the most widely
successful commercial variety of any of our tree-fruits. In making a
choice of commercial varieties for any section, a few hardy sorts
that are known to do well in the locality are the safest to plant.
One should also have enough trees of each variety for economical
growing and marketing.

Vigorous one-year-old trees that will caliper 5/8 to 3/4 inch and are
from 3 to 5 feet in height, as illustrated at the left in Fig. 2792,
are an ideal size to plant. They should be free from yellows or
little-peach or rosette, root-gall, scale, peach-borers, or other
injurious peach enemies.

Fall planting is successful with well-ripened trees in localities in
which the winter weather is not severe and where soils are sandy and
well drained. In northern districts, fall planting is less likely to
be successful. In spring planting, the land should be prepared and
the trees set as early as soil conditions permit.

The trees should be set about 20 feet apart each way under average
conditions. In some localities 18 feet is sufficient distance, while
in others 25 feet is not too much.

Vegetable crops, such as peas, beans, tomatoes, and potatoes, may be
grown between the rows of young peach trees for the first and second
seasons, after which the practice is of doubtful economy.

Tillage.

The apple is sometimes grown successfully under the sod-mulch system,
but attempts to manage the peach in the same way have commonly
resulted in failure. The soil of the orchard should be plowed or
disced into a fine mellow condition in the spring as soon as it
becomes dry enough to "work" well. This state of tillage should then
be maintained until about mid- season by frequent harrowing. The time
when culture should cease varies with the locality and the variety.
It is seldom possible to cultivate later than ten days or two weeks
previous to the ripening of the fruit, as the branches become bent
down with the crop. Early varieties should commonly receive one or
more cultivations after the crop has been picked. In the South,
tillage is often stopped in bearing orchards in late June, while in
the North it is continued until late July. In dry seasons, late
varieties require additional culture to reach good size. A large
proportion of vegetable matter in the soil is an important factor in
the production of large fruit, especially in dry seasons. Cover-crops
should be grown wherever possible.

Fertilizing.

Rate and character of growth is a great limiting factor in
peach-production. A certain amount of growth is necessary to maintain
vigor and a proper number of flower-buds. The extent and time of
greatest growth determines size, color and quality of fruit to a
marked degree. The application of plant-food or fertilizers is a
feature of orchard practice that directly concerns rate of growth.

Trees in full bearing should make an annual growth of at least 12 to
18 inches at the tips of leading branches in most peach regions to
maintain a maximum produc-tion. Fruit-growers should apply
fertilizers to secure a growth according to their soil type and its
conditions. If such a growth is obtainable without fertilizer, its
application may prove detrimental, while if the soil is thin and
poor, heavy fertilizing will be required for good results.

Under the average conditions, the equivalent of 100 pounds nitrate of
soda, 150 pounds muriate of potash, and 400 pounds acid phosphate
will not be found to be excessive, and additional nitrate will be
needed in many cases. In districts where the winters are severe,
however, nitrogenous fertilizers must be applied sparingly.

Pruning.

Two distinct types of pruning are practised with the peach. One is to
allow the tree to form its own particular habit of development except
to thin out the branches somewhat as illustrated in Fig. 2794 as
contrasted with Fig.2793. Figs. 2795 and 2796 show other examples of
this treatment. The other is to practise annual cutting back of the
branches as well as tliinning out, to produce a strong compact and
yet well-spread tree, as illustrated in Fig. 2797. The first method
may result in the somewhat earlier production of fruit, as much
pruning tends to delay fruiting. Trees whose main branches are not
cut back annually are more likely to suffer from breakage not only in
seasons of heavy crops, but also during ice-storms in winter. On each
tree, also, the vigorous fruit-bearing parts tend to extend farther
away from the main trunk each year. Fig. 2793 illustrates the habit
of growth assumed by an unpruned tree.

The peach produces its fruit-buds upon the one- year-old wood-growth.
On vigorous twigs the buds commonly occur in groups of three, as
illustrated in Figs. 2798, 2799, the two outer buds being flower-buds
and the center bud a leaf-bud. Sometimes all three buds are
flower-buds and sometimes only one. Single flower-buds may frequently
occur also.

Many fads in pruning prevail, which have no economic bearing upon the
amount and quality of the crop. The height to which the trees should
be cut back when planted varies with different growers, but from 18
to 24 inches is a good average. Some prefer the extreme of 6 inches,
but such low trees often make borer- removal difficult.

At the end of the first season's growth, the real pruning of the tree
begins. At that time the main branches of the tree should be chosen.

The best three or four well-placed branches should be chosen to form
the framework for the future top of the tree as illustrated in Figs.
2800, 2801. These should be distributed upon the trunk and not issue
from the same point, although on different sides, as in Fig. 2802. In
some cases a tree may have developed only a single irregular shoot
and this will then require severe cutting back to encourage branching
at the desired height. Fig. 2803 shows a good two-year-old tree,
low-headed.

When several side branches occupy much the same space or cross one
another, a choice of one should be made and the remainder pruned off.
The amount of cutting-back to be practised at the close of the first
season upon the main branches selected for the permanent framework of
the tree depends on the form of the tree. If it is compact, vigorous,
and of the desired form, the cutting back of each tip to the first
good side branch is all that is necessary. Should one main branch be
irregular in growth, more severe pruning is desirable. Severe
cutting- back, save in the case of poorly formed trees, only delays
fruiting and increases the expense.

During the second summer, the necessity for severe winter pruning may
be prevented by the rubbing off of any shoots that tend to develop as
suckers low down upon the trunk, or in the center of the tree where
they are not wanted, and the pinching back of the tips of any
branches that tend to develop in an irregular manner. The removal of
shoots should be done before they are more than an inch or two in
length. The pinching back of irregular shoots should be accomplished
in June or early July before they are more than 18 or 20 inches in
length. The removal of much growth and foliage in the summer may
cause a severe check to the tree.

The annual dormant-season pruning beginning with the second year
should be somewhat as follows: The main branches will develop
numerous side branches and the strongest and best placed of these
should be retained. A well-formed tree is not only agreeable to look
upon, but furthermore the maximum production of good fruit is secured
only when the greatest possible amount of vigorous fruit-bearing
surface is properly exposed to light. The annual cutting back of the
leading branches to the first good side branch will result in
well-spread vigorous trees. The cutting of a branch to an "outside
bud," however, does not change the direction of growth of that branch
to anywhere near the same degree. The cutting back of the branches
causes a thickening of the top, and some thinning out of shoots and
branches is necessary, otherwise the fruit will lack color.

A central leader is avoided in the pruning of peach trees, and any
shoots which tend to shut out the light from the center of the tree
should be kept pruned back and not allowed to become more than
fruiting twigs. The general form of the tree should be about complete
at the close of the third or fourth summer after planting, and the
annual pruning will largely consist of the removal of any broken
branches and the cutting back of the annual growth on each branch
about one-third or one-half, according to the variety and the amount
or length of growth. Pruning is often the most economical method of
thinning, and this point should not be overlooked.

After peach trees have fruited for several years, they commonly
require a severe cutting back to reduce the size of the top and to
secure more vigorous wood. Such a cutting back should be practised
whenever the fruit-buds are destroyed in winter. All branches may be
cut back into wood-growth formed the two or three previous seasons.

It is never advisable to saw the main branches back to mere stubs a
foot or more in length except upon young trees that are to be
top-worked.

Thinning the fruit.

Thinning is now a regular feature of good orchard- management. Small
fruit sells for low prices at all times and in seasons of heavy
crop-production can hardly be disposed of at any price. When trees
are allowed to mature as much fruit as will set in a favorable
season, much breakage of branches is the usual result. The small
green fruits should be thinned as soon as the so- called "drop" or
the natural thinning occurs. Sometimes this fails to take place and
then the fruit should be thinned as soon as it is about the size of a
shelled hickory- nut. Thinning the fruits to not less than 6 inches
apart will not reduce the yield of the tree, and 8 inches apart is
not too much to secure extra-large fruit, especially upon such sorts
as Waddell, Crosby, Mountain Rose, and Stump, which tend to be small
to medium in size under average conditions.

Harvesting the fruit.

This part of the peach business really begins as soon as a crop is
definitely assured for the season. The necessary number of packages
should be purchased, the packing-house put in order, and arrangements
made for the needed number of teams, trucks, pickers, packers, and
other labor.

When the fruit is ready to pick, the work should be organized with
one man in constant charge in the orchard. He should direct the
pickers and see that each one picks all the fruit that is mature
enough at any one time and yet does not take off that which is too
green. An efficient picking-crew is necessary in order to secure good
results at the packing-house.

White-fleshed peaches change from a light green to a cream-white
ground- or under-color as they mature. So-called yellow-fleshed
varieties change from a yellowish green to various shades of yellow
or orange as they ripen. Pickers should be instructed to determine
the maturity of a fruit by its color, and be corrected if they
attempt to test it by pressure with the fingers. Good pickers will
harvest from sixty to one hundred sixteen- quart baskets a day from
well-pruned trees.

The fruit is not uncommonly picked directly into the package in which
it is sold, but this practice is rapidly passing in favor of a
distinct picking-basket. The most common type in use is a round
flat-bottomed wooden stave basket of sixteen quarts capacity.

A low-wheeled wagon is best adapted for hauling the fruit from the
orchard to the packing-house.

Packing the fruit for market.

Some sort of a packing-house is necessary when any considerable
amount of fruit is handled. A shelter against rain is imperative to
prevent the warping of wooden packages. Rapid work in packing can
best be organized in a building with a wooden or cement floor and
where stencils and tools can be kept in order. A long and relatively
narrow packing-house with large doors upon either side is likely to
prove the moat economical for the handling of the fruit.
Packages, tables, and box- or crate-presses should be arranged in a
way to promote rapid and efficient work. No distinct grades of
peaches, unfortunately, have become recognized in any broad way.
Persons employed as packers should be chosen for their honesty and
interest in the business as well as for their rapidity in filling the
packages.

The common commercial packages now in use are the sixteen-quart Jersey or Delaware basket and its modifications, the Georgia six-basket carrier, the Michigan bushel and half-bushel, the Climax basket (Fig.2804) and the western or California box.

Packages often arrive on the market in bad condition because they have not been sufficiently well-filled at the orchard. The fruit must be packed tightly enough so that it cannot move in the package during transit.

Simple mechanical graders have been used for some time in some of the peach regions, but have never been entirely satisfactory. The new types of graders are still in the experimental stage. See Packages, page 2426, for description of types of fruit-graders.

Markets.

All the large cities in the United States and Canada, in addition to the local towns, consume large quantities of peaches. A grower who is situated near a large local market can allow his fruit to become well-ripened and haul it by wagon or truck without requiring other transportation facilities. Much of the crop must go to market by rail, however, and if in transit more than a few hours, some refrigeration is necessary. Refrigerator cars are employed for this. The large so-called "Fruit- Growers Express" or "Dispatch Cars" will hold five and one-half tons of ice and are capable of carrying 448 Georgia carriers in four tiers, or 558 crates in five tiers.

All crates, boxes, or baskets should be so arranged when placed in refrigerator cars as to allow of a free circulation of air.

Precooling of peaches previous to shipment is practised to some extent, but is not yet common. One who engages in peach-production upon a large scale cannot depend upon local markets to take his entire crop at a profit and must be prepared to ship to the wholesale markets. The ideal shipment is the carload. To ship at least a carload of fruit constantly, one needs to have from about 1,000 to 1,200 trees of each variety in full bearing.

insects.

The most serious insect enemies of the peach are the borer, San Jose scale, and curculio. A few years ago the scale was considered the most troublesome of the three, but the borer is now the most difficult to control. The mature insect is wasp-like in appearance, the mole shining steel-blue in color with an orange-yellow band about the abdomen, while the female is of a deeper and duller color. The eggs are laid on the trunk near the ground from June to as late as September, or possibly October. The "grubs" hatch and work their way under the bark and there feed upon the inner bark for about twelve months, when a case is formed of the "sawdust" and other materials, in which the pupa stage is passed. One or two borer larvae may completely girdle a nursery tree, while several may accomplish similar damage on a young tree in the orchard. In any case the infested tree is greatly weakened. The presence of borers is easily detected by the mass of gum and "chewings" at the base of the tree.

A great variety of materials has been tested aa coatings to prevent the entrance of borers, but none has proved to be entirely successful. The expansion of the bark because of growth causes numerous cracks in the coating of most materials that are applied and the borers gain entrance. A soft grade of asphaltum applied to the trunk for a few inches above and below ground is a promising material now under test. Lime -sulfur, whitewash, and other materials may have some value as repellants, but are not very efficient.

The common practice is to remove the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches about the trunks of the trees in early spring and to kill the borers by means of a knife and a short piece of wire. Some growers examine their trees in autumn, but there is danger of winter injury unless the soil is put back before severe winter weather occurs.

The San Jose scale is now easily controlled by a thorough dormant-season spraying of lime-sulfur diluted to a specific gravity of 1.03 to 1.04.

The plum-curculio is a small snout beetle about 1/4 inch in length with four irregular humps upon the wing-covers. It is dark mottled gray in color with black markings. The principal damage caused by this insect is during seasons of light crops or upon trees just coming into bearing when the loss of a proportion of the green fruits reduces the crop. In seasons of heavy crops, the loss of a proportion of the green fruit may not prove to be of economic importance. The beetle appears in the orchard about blooming time and feeds on the foliage until the calyces are shed from the fruits, when egg-laying begins. If the egg hatches, the larva makes its way to the center of the peach and feeds upon the developing germ, causing the fruit to fall from the tree later. The mature beetle may also do considerable feeding upon the outside of the peach while it is still small, causing irregular blemishes that may markedly effect the commercial value of the fruit. The curculio is most troublesome when the orchard is surrounded by grasslands and hedgerows of weeds and native trees. When much of the area is under cultivation and good orchard practice prevails, the damage is greatly reduced. A spraying of arsenate of lead just after the petals fall, and again just as the calyces are shedding from the fruits, will destroy many of the curculio. It is best to combine the lead with the self-boiled lime-sulfur to secure a better distribution of the lead and prevent any burning of foliage by an inferior product.

The bark-beetle is a small black insect not more than 1/8 inch in length that attacks the bark upon weakened trees, causing gum to exude in spots upon the trunk and branches. Fortunately, the insect usually causes little or no damage to vigorous healthy trees and its presence indicates that some other factor is really to blame, although it is sometimes reported on healthy trees. The black peach aphis is occasionally troublesome upon light soils, but good culture and a vigorous growth commonly prevents any serious check to the trees.

Various beetles and grasshoppers may cause some damage at times by feeding upon the peach, such injuries being most common in orchards in which grass or weeds are allowed to grow freely.

Diseases.

The peach is subject to the attacks of a considerable number of diseases. The most difficult to combat are yellows, little-peach, and rosette. The causes of these diseases are still unknown. Some suggest the presence of a fungus, others an organism too small to be detected by the ordinary microscope, and there is also the possibility of enzymes.

The advanced stages of yellows are indicated by a prematuring of the fruit from a few days to at least two weeks in advance of the normal season. Such fruit is commonly red-spotted and blotched in its coloring and may be insipid or bitter in flavor. Affected trees may also develop sickly wiry twig-growths on the trunks and branches.

Little-peach is indicated by a characteristic drooping of the foliage and by the fact that the fruit is smaller and matures later than the fruit on healthy trees.

Rosette occurs only in southern districts and is readily distinguished by the tufts of leaf-development. This disease is fatal within twelve months in many instances.

It is not known whether these diseases are entirely distinct or not, but they have been so regarded. Yellows and little-peach attack all varieties in about the same proportion. Infection does not appear to take place through the soil, flowers, or seed. These diseases can readily be transmitted to healthy trees or stocks, however, by budding. Buds taken from the apparently healthy parts of diseased trees have invariably reproduced the diseases.

The recognition of early stages of yellows and little- peach have shown that these diseases are too frequently distributed in nursery stock. It is now known that a tree may be infected with either of these diseases for three or four years without showing any prominent symptoms. When good growing conditions are provided, the true state of affairs may be masked for a time, but a check to growth will result in the prompt appearance of the advanced stages of disease.

Many cases of so-called "cures" of yellows have been announced, but all have been without sound basis. Too often trees affected with borers, winter injury and other troubles are considered to be affected with yellows. Diseased trees should be destroyed as soon as detected. When such trees are left in an orchard, the disease spreads to surrounding trees until all are affected. If all diseased trees were destroyed annually in any district and no diseased nursery trees were introduced, the annual loss could readily be kept as low as 1 per cent, without much doubt. Yellows attacks Japanese plums as well as peaches, and this should not be overlooked in control work.

Peach leaf-curl, brown-rot, peach-scab and mildew are fungous diseases of the. peach which cause much damage annually. The leaf-curl attacks the foliage in early spring just as the leaf-buds open, and the leaves become curled, thickened, and distorted. The tips of Shoots may also become affected and the disease is occasionally seen upon the fruit in a fan-shaped discolored area. The affected leaves finally turn brown, and fall from the trees in early summer. In severe attacks, the trees are almost completely defoliated, greatly reducing their vigor and causing them to lose most of the fruit which may have set. This disease is readily controlled by a spraying with lime-sulfur, as directed for the scale, before the leaf-buds begin to make growth. After the leaf-buds begin to expand, however, the spraying may not prove effective. Recent experiments have been tried with apparent success in New York of fall spraying for leaf-curl, as late as the first part of December.

Brown-rot was formerly one of the dreads of the peach-grower. Thousands of baskets of fruit frequently rotted on the trees just at harvest time. Not until the value and safety of self-boiled lime-sulfur summer spray was demonstrated by Scott were the peach-growers supplied with an effective remedy for the disease. This affliction may not only cause a rapid decay of the fruit at ripening time, but it sometimes attacks the blossoms and causes their death. The affected blooms are distinguished from frost injuries from the fact that they cling to the twigs, and gum commonly oozes out from the canker formed upon the twig at the base of the bloom. The small green fruits may also decay at all stages, and the twigs may be killed outright from numerous cankers upon the bark. Such varieties as Triumph and Connecticut frequently begin to rot before they ripen, and the entire crop may be lost even when well sprayed. Such sorts should never be planted. Varieties as susceptible as Champion are not very satisfactory shipping varieties. A thorough system of summer spraying, as outlined under "spraying" (page 2500), should control brown-rot.

Peach-scab is a fungous disease which appears upon the fruits in the form of small black dots. In severe cases these dots may be so numerous as to form a sooty blotch. The skin of the fruit may then crack, offering an excellent opportunity for brown-rot to begin its destruction. Peach-scab is most serious from central New Jersey south to Georgia. Upon hilly areas, north of central New Jersey, it is rather uncommon and it seldom requires any attention. The disease occurs only upon the upper surface and ends of the peach as it grows on the branch. It makes its appearance in the form of very minute black spots or dote from about the middle to the last of June upon early varieties in New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. Farther south it occurs correspondingly earlier. It may be readily controlled by thorough summer spraying with the self- boiled lime-sulfur.

Peach-mildew most frequently occurs along the northern limits of peach-production near the Great Lakes, and in the Northwest. This is probably because of the wider extremes of temperature during the day.

Mildew appears in the form of a white powdery substance upon the leaves and fruit. It may do considerable damage to nursery stock in some cases. Sprayings
with self-boiled lime-sulfur will commonly hold it in check.

Spraying.

The peach is subject to the attacks of numerous disease and insect enemies, and thorough spraying is required for success in most cases. The peach foliage is very sensitive to caustic sprays, however, and great damage may be done from ignorance. Copper sprays, such as bordeaux; are dangerous to use on peach foliage in humid climates. San Jose scale and leaf-curl can be controlled by a winter spraying of lime-sulfur. Peach-scab and brown-rot can be held in check by several sprayings of the self-boiled lime- sulfur summer spray.

When San Jose scale, leaf-curl, peach-scab, brown- rot and curculio appear to any considerable extent, the following spraying schedule is suggested:

1. For scale and leaf-curl, apply concentrated lime- sulfur diluted to a specific gravity of 1.03 to 1.04 before the leaf-buds start to make growth in early spring.

2. Just after the petals fall, apply self-boiled lime- sulfur of an 8-8-50 formula and arsenate of lead at the rate of three pounds of paste, or one and one- half pounds of powdered lead to each fifty gallons of spray.

3. Repeat this when the calyces are shedding from the fruits or when the latter are about the size of green peas.

4. Apply self-boiled lime-sulfur without the addition of arsenate of lead three weeks after the third spraying.

5. Apply self-boiled lime-eulfur again three weeks later to all varieties ripening later than Carman.

6. In wet seasons and especially for varieties as late as Fox, Salway, or Bilyeu, an additional spraying may prove profitable.

No spraying should be done within less than three weeks of the ripe stage, or the fruit may have a whitewashed appearance.

Where the plum-curculio causes little or no damage, the second spraying may be omitted, and where peach- scab and brown-rot are uncommon, the fourth, fifth, and sixth sprayings may be omitted.

Winter injuries.

There are several forms of winter injury, including bud-killing, twig-killing, collar injury and bark-split- ting. Bud-killing takes place when the temperature is too severe in winter. The pistils and stamens are killed in their rudimentary state, giving the center of the bud a brown or black appearance when a cross- section is made. Poorly formed buds often die even when the winter temperatures are not particularly severe. Alternate warm and cold periods may also result in bud-killing. Varieties such as Reeves, Early Crawford, and Mountain Rose suffer more from bud- killing than Greensboro, Carman, or Crosby. Vigorous trees that ripen their wood-growth early are best able to withstand low temperatures successfully. Trees that make a relatively late growth are, however, more successful in resisting the effects of a variable winter.

Twig-killing is a more severe form of injury than bud- killing, and following such injury the trees should be well cut back before growth begins.

Collar injury is caused by the action of the weather upon the bark of the trunk just at or below the surface of the ground. In mild cases, the inner bark becomes yellow in color and very spongy. The tree is checked in growth and the fruit forced to an unusually large size. The lenticels or dote are large and the flavor of the fruit is often astringent, due to a large proportion of tannin. In more severe cases of injury, the trees suddenly die in midsummer with the shriveled fruit clinging to the twigs. Bark-beetles often attack trees checked by winter injury and the death of the trees is often entirely attributed to their attacks. The Elberta appears to be more susceptible to this form of winter injury than such varieties as Greensboro or Carman. The soil should be firmly mounded up for about a foot against the trunks of peach trees just before freezing weather each fall to prevent such winter injury.

The bark on the trunks of old peach trees may occasionally crack open as a result of winter weather. The most that can be done is to cut away the bark that has separated from the sap-wood and to paint the latter to prevent decay.

Peach trees not infrequently suffer injury to the sap-wood of the branches and twigs, and the trees may fail to grow vigorously the following spring. Such trees should be given liberal fertilizing and be kept well cultivated to promote a good growth.
M .A. Blake.

Peach-culture in the South.

Peaches have been abundant in the southern states since the very earliest settlement, the so-called Spanish varieties being first distributed by the early settlers in Florida, and to this day, all through the South Atlantic States, the old "Spanish Blood" or "Tinsley" peach, is spoken of as one of the choice fruits of the earth. From time to time all the improved varieties were scattered through the South by the more progressive horticulturists and nurserymen and these and their seedlings were abundant on nearly every plantation. The South being strictly an agricultural country, there was little chance for commercial peach-culture until along between 1870 and 1875, when the introduction of a number of new extra-early varieties of the Alexander type, seedlings of Hale and Rivers, gave such bright showy peaches the latter part of May and early June that attempts were made to market them at a profit in our northern cities.

A lack of quick through railway-express service caused them to be three and four days on the way, and usually to be delivered in poor condition. Occasional lots, arriving in fair to good condition and selling at $12 to $20 a bushel, convinced a few of the shippers that the extra-early peaches of the South were appreciated at the North, and persistent efforts were continued to get them to market in sound condition. Every conceivable style of shipping package was used,—paper- wrapped fruit placed between layers of cotton, excelsior, paper, and the like, and sent by express or steamer,— and all brought about the same returns, "Arrived in bad order." Only occasional lots paid a profit. Finally, heavy refrigerator boxes that would hold about six bushels of fruit in packages, and a sufficient quantity of ice. with strong castor wheels under them so they could be trundled in and out of freight cars, were utilized to bring peaches north by Savannah and Charleston steamers; and by re-icing on the steamers, much of the early fruit came through in good order and sold at such satisfactory prices as to encourage the sending of the large midsummer peaches to market in the same way, and the planting of moderate-sized orchards and the further experimenting with seedlings and varieties best suited to long shipments.

The perfection of the refrigerator car for fruit transportation, improved machinery for the cheap manufacture of ice, the consolidation of various small railway lines into great through routes of transportation, and a full appreciation by their managers of the importance of a successful peach industry, and last but not least, the originating of the Elberta peach by Mr. Rumph, were the final factors in rapidly developing the great commercial peach industry in Georgia, and its smaller counterparts in South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and the more recent rush of overplanting in Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and southern Missouri.

The year 1889 saw the first large peach crop successfully harvested and marketed. Profits were large, and being reported in the press many times greater than they really were, stimulated much planting by those entirely unfamiliar with fruit-culture, and with no special love for it except the money that might be made out of it. Cheap lands and the abundance of good low-priced labor were encouragements to extensive plantings. In nearly every state of the South, land in vast tracts suitable for peach-culture could be had at S3 to $10 an acre, and labor from sun to sun at 40 to 60 cents a day; while in 1915 these lands are selling at $25 to $100 an acre, with a possible average of $40. and labor costs $1 a day or more, while the added expense of three or more sprayings each year has helped to double the cost of peach-production in the South.

Along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, varying from 100 to 200 miles inland, most of the land being low and flat, early' blooming, followed by spring frost, makes the peach industry too uncertain to be profitable. The hill lands in western sections of Atlantic Coast states, and northern sections of the Gulf States, is really the peach country of the South, where extended lists of varieties are grown, covering a season of fully two months; while the southwestern states, planting almost entirely of one variety, have a season of less than two weeks in many orchards. Fort Valley and Marshallville, the great peach centers of Georgia, though on tablelands about 200 miles from both ocean and Gulf, and at an elevation of a little over 500 feet, are not in what might strictly be called the hill country, being just below the southern edge of it. In this section of Georgia, most of the peach orchards have been planted on old cotton- land, much of which has been in cultivation a century or more, and while the surface-soil is worn and poor, down deep in the red clay soil underlying the 6 or 8 inches of sandy gray loam of the surface, there must be a vast amount of fertility from the way peach trees grow when once started and a reasonable amount of culture is given.

In the early days most of the orchardists, who were cotton-planters as well, planted second- and third- class yearling trees, or else small June-budded trees any time from October to March, opening furrows for the trees and cross-checking the rows 18 to 22 feet apart, later plowing this land and planting it in cotton, continuing it for three and often four years. Two to four hundred pounds of low-grade fertilizer is applied in drills for the cotton and usually very thorough culture given; trees are allowed to grow at will, their culture being incidental to the cotton crop. In such orchards very little if any pruning was ever attempted. After the trees become so large as to drive out the cotton, one plowing is given in winter, then anything from fairly good culture to none at all the remainder of each season. Such a system resulted in many "scrub orchards," that were not very profitable after six or seven years.

In the recent and more highly developed peach orcharding of this section of the South, better preparation is given the land at the start, dynamiting of the holes for planting being largely practised. There is a more careful selection of trees, far more liberal fertilizing, planting at greater distances, seldom less than 20 by 20 feet, better culture, less and less of intercropping, except of cowpeas and other cover-crops, and somewhat more of systematic pruning, though as yet this art is not fully enough practised to show best results. Many of the land-booming orchards, planted between 1890 and 1900, proved financial failures and are either no longer in existence or else have been absorbed into other and better propositions. There are less and less of the cotton farmer orchardists and more peach specialists, as time and experience have shown the business to be unprofitable, except under best business conditions. The writer's plantations, which ten years ago aggregated some 265,000 trees, have now been reduced to less than 100,000 trees, as only by planting at greater distances and giving a less number of trees better care and attention, can any profit be assured.

All land is plowed deep, and sometimes subsoiled before planting. Young orchards are given frequent and thorough tillage up to midseason, when two or three rows of cowpeas are drilled in at least 4 feet away from the rows of trees; these and the trees are cultivated frequently, until the peas have taken almost full possession of the ground, and it is time for both the land and trees to have a rest from cultivation. In the fall when peas are ripe, enough are gathered for next year's seed, after which hogs or mules may be turned in to pasture for a time. The stubble furnishes a fine winter cover, and is turned down at first plowing in February or March, when summer culture begins, and at proper tune the orchard is again seeded to cowpeas, across the former direction of the rows. Three years of this usually builds up a perfect orchard without the aid of any other fertilizers, except possibly a very little about the trees at time of planting to give them a start.

Low-headed trees are the rule, the trunks seldom branching over 18 inches up, and often 8 inches to a foot from the ground. As a rule, the close cutting- back at time of planting, and a general shortening-in of the leading branches for the first two or three years, is about all the pruning given, even in the best orchards. A good plan is to shorten-in every year much of the past season's growth, and from the central head often cut back two or three seasons growth; but under no circumstances are any of the good side shoots cut out that force themselves on all the main stems when the top is properly headed back. These little side branches have given several full crops of fruit, when without them there has been failure.

Soil and climate favor the very brightest of color on all peaches in the South; qualities of the soil and the long, hot summer sun give a richness and sweetness of flavor superior to any other section of America, though the same varieties are not so juicy or luscious as when grown farther North.

The orchards in connection with cotton plantations run all the way from 10 to 100 acres in extent, while the "straight-out peach farm" seldom has as few as 50 acres in fruit, more of them having from 100 to 200 acres, while orchards all the way from 300 to nearly 1,000 acres in extent are no uncommon sight. The Georgia peach industry turns out 5,000 to 7,000 carloads of peaches in seven or eight weeks of a busy picking season, even though the 18,000,000 trees estimated to have been in that state ten years ago have now been reduced to less than 8,000,000.

Growth usually ceases early in August, and the trees shed their leaves the last of September, a month or six weeks before any frosts occur. Should the fall be warm and wet, some fruit-buds will be forced into bloom, while the greater number will remain dormant until late January or early February, when spring growth commences. The season of full bloom is usually about the first week in March, though it varies all the way from February 15 to March 25, and no matter whether early or late, the entire blooming season of most varieties covers a period of nearly three weeks. While spring frosts are the greatest menace to southern peach- culture, this long blooming period often gives a chance for a setting of fruit between the various frosts, or after the last one, from some belated buds. Even with these varying chances of escaping between frosts, about one year in three frost destroys the peach crop in some one or more of the great centers of peach-production in the South.

Two other serious troubles hamper the southern peach cultivator—curculio and monilia or brown-rot. Curculios are very abundant; beginning early in April, they keep up their destructive work until the end of the fruiting season. In recent years in the summer spraying for monilia, the addition of arsenate of lead has controlled the ravages of curculio so well that now they are far less destructive than before. The early spring months at the South are inclined to be pleasant and very dry, and the summer rains, which are frequent and abundant when they do come, often do not set in until the latter part of July or early August, near the end of the peach- shipping season. Often, however, they begin in June, and continue for two or three weeks, and in the case of the season of 1900 it rained for six weeks through the main part of the peach harvest. Hot sun between showers and the general mugginess of a warm climate rapidly breed the monilia fungus, and brown-rot is the most serious trouble the southern peach-grower has to contend with, though with proper spraying it may be held almost entirely in check, and except for the extra expense is not now to be feared as in the earlier days of southern peach-culture. In the ten years from 1895 to 1905, probably more than 50 per cent of peaches grown in Georgia rotted on the trees, or else reached market in specky condition as the results of monilia fungus.

The first great crop of Georgia peaches that made a strong impress on all northern markets was in 1889, when the Elberta variety by its large size, great beauty, and fine keeping qualities showed up so strongly for the first time as to outclass all other varieties. Great profits were made and, being reported as even greater, there was a mad rush to plant Elterta, and Elberta. only. This was kept up until 1896-7 before it came to be realized that there could be too much of even a good thing. The rushing of a great volume of fruit, no matter how choice, into the markets in two or three weeks, before they had been "toned up" to at least a liberal supply of good fruit, was a business mistake. To remedy this there has been a hunt after a good early variety to precede the Elberta, as well as later ones to follow it. So that, while prior to 1896 more than 75 per cent of the plantings were of Elberta, since that time not more than 15 to 20 per cent of Elberta have been planted. There is a better balance of varieties, and a longer and more profitable season of marketing has been assured. Many early and mid-early varieties growing ten or fifteen years ago have mostly been abandoned, Greensboro, Carman, Hiley and Belle (of Georgia) being varieties most largely grown to precede Elberta. Growers are now beginning to abandon the Greensboro and plant excessively of other extra-early varieties, notably Uneeda, Arp (Arp Beauty or Queen of Dixie), and Early Rose. These varieties having sold at extremely high prices in recent years, there now appears as great a tendency to plant extra-early ripening peaches as there was for the Elberta in the earlier days.

When loading in cars, the crates are placed side by side about 2 1/2 inches apart across the car, taking seven crates. Then two strips of inch-square stuff, just long enough to reach across the car, are put on top of the crates at each end and are lightly nailed down. Tier upon tier is built up in this way, either five or six crates high, until the car is full. Spacing of the crates and the slatting provides space for cold air around each and every crate. In dry seasons, when fruit is free from rot- germs, cars as now constructed can with safety be loaded five crates high, but in wet seasons, with rot prevalent, they arrive in market in much better condition when loaded only four high. Besides the original icing, which requires four to six tons to a car, a re-icing after loading takes one to three tons, depending upon how long the car is loading. A car will hold 448 to 525 crates, according to the size of the car and whether loaded four or five crates high. Handled along best modern lines, with careful inspection from start to finish, it costs for the six-basket Georgia carrier, from 30 to 35 cents to take peaches ripe from the tree and place them in the car.

Some peaches of the Crawford type are grown all through the South, but they do not succeed [so well as most others of the Persian strain, and none of the Persians does so well in the far South as the North China strains, to which Carman, Hiley, Early Rose, Belle, and Elberta belong. The South "China peaches, to which the Peen-to, Honey, and Angel belong, succeed best in Florida and close along the Gulf Coast. While their bitter-sweet flavor is appreciated by some, they are not generally profitable for market.

In preparation for marketing the fruit crop, many of the large orchards have railroad side-tracks running to their packing-houses in the orchard; refrigerator cars are brought South, and every available bit of sidetrack for 300 or 400 miles about is filled with these cars. At leading centers, refrigerator-car people have constructed great ice-storage-houses, with every convenience for quickly icing and re-icing cars. Agents of these refrigerator-car companies, by frequently driving about among the orchards and keeping in touch with the managers, plan to have enough cars iced and cooled off 80 as to be ready for each day's demand, and by placing an order with the railroad agent the night before, the orchardist may have one or a dozen refrigerator cars delivered on his side-track in the morning. For smaller shippers, who cannot load in carlots, the railroads keep at all times in season refrigerator cars on siding at each station in the peach district, into which any number of shippers may load; more often there will be a number of such cars loading at the same time, so that a shipper may have a choice as to which market he will consign his fruit. Except in the height of the season, these cars are often two and sometimes three days in loading, and the continued opening of the car to put in small lots of fruit prevents perfect refrigeration ; consequently fruit from small shippers more often goes to market in bad order than from the larger orchards, where a car can be quickly loaded and at once closed up, not to be opened until ready for sale in some northern market. In the Hale orchards, a car is often loaded in an hour, and very little of the fruit is ever so long as two hours passing from the tree through the assorting- and packing-houses to the car.

In some of the smaller orchards, fruit is packed in crates or baskets under the trees, and then hauled in open wagons, often without springs, to the railroad station. In others, some of the old farm buildings are used as packing-houses; more often special fruit-houses are used, their size depending upon the requirements of the orchards, while in style and convenience more depends upon the intelligence of the orchardists and desire to handle the fruit rapidly in best possible manner. The picking-basket most generally used is a shallow, round basket, with a drop handle, and holding about a half-bushel. With good refrigerator cars and prompt railroad service, fruit is now allowed to come to full maturity on the tree, and is picked just before it begins to soften.

Since the organization of the Georgia Fruit Exchange, some eight or ten years ago, about 75 per cent of the peach-growers of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina have, through this cooperation, been enabled to secure a wider distribution and a more uniform market- price for their products, and their business is on a more secure foundation than in any other section of the South.
J.H. Hale.

Peach-growing in California.

The peach is a fruit of wide commercial importance in California. The great peach-growing sections are principally in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, but orchards are found and are profitable not only in the mountains up to an altitude of 3,000 feet, but also in the coast sections. The most important districts are the first named. For size, flavor, color, and shipping qualities, the peaches grown in this state have a national reputation.

The tree thrives not only on the sandy, loamy soils which are adapted to irrigation and are well drained, but also on the heavier red and black soils, which are more or less mixed with gravel and are found both in the foothill and coast regions of California. On account of the arid climate, there being no rainfall from May until October, it goes without saying that to produce high-class peaches for either shipping, canning, or drying, irrigation is very essential. The theory that was formerly advanced that irrigated fruit would not keep, has not been borne out in practice, and to attempt to grow peaches without irrigation, particularly in the great valleys, would now be considered the height of folly.

No systematic plan has been followed in fertilizing orchards, although growers are realizing that to grow good fruit and to maintain an orchard up to the very highest standard, the application of fertilizers is essential. Considerable interest is now taken in cover-crops, and a number of experiments have been made with Canada field peas, fenugreek, and vetch. To grow a cover-crop successfully, it is necessary to have water in the fall, and as water from the canals is not obtainable, it must be secured by pumping. Barnyard manure, when it is to be had, is given the preference by growers. This is becoming very scarce, however, and eventually commercial fertilizers will come into general use.

Peach trees are transplanted in California when they are one year old from the bud, except in years when stock is scarce and trees sell at high prices, when many growers purchase June buds, which transplant readily, providing care is taken to allow them to mature fully in the nursery before digging.

Nothing will bring a peach tree to a premature end more quickly than not to prune. Trees when transplanted to the orchard should be pruned both root and top. The root-pruning should be the shortening-in of all the roots at least one-third and the removal of all bruised and lacerated roots.

After the trees are set, they should have the top cut off to within 20 inches of the ground, even if the tree be 6 feet or more in height. In most cases, the failure of trees to grow may be attributed to the orchardist's failure to observe this simple rule. It is very necessary to settle the soil around the tree, either by irrigating (running the water in furrows), or by tanking (using not less than fifteen gallons of water to a tree).

The winter following the planting in the orchard, the branches forming the head should be confined to not more than five at the very outside, and four is better. These should be cut back at least two-thirds and all laterals removed.

This pruning will not only cause the trees to grow stocky, but it will probably also serve the purpose of making the framework branches very sturdy. The tree will respond by making an immense growth and in the second winter the shortening-in of this growth will again have to be very severe, and thinning will have to be practised. The point to be considered in this case again is to give the tree not only the goblet form, but to perfect it, for this pruning increases its vigor and makes it capable of producing heavy crops which are well protected from any injury by the sun, due to its wealth of foliage. From the third year, two or three laterals are allowed to grow on each of the frameworks, and their growth is again shortened-in severely. In the fourth year, the pruning need not be so severe, and a reasonable crop of fruit may be expected. Pruning in after years should be followed out regularly each season if good crops are to be secured and the longevity of the tree maintained.

It is a mistake to plant peach trees too close together. In former years it was customary to plant 20 by 20 feet, but now trees are planted 24 by 24 feet, as better results have been secured at this distance.

Thinning must be practised when the crop is heavy, for, if not followed carefully, the fruit will lack size, and no matter for what purpose it is used it will go into an inferior grade and at prices which would be very unsatisfactory to the grower. The peaches should never be closer than 4 inches apart. If the ground underneath the tree has the appearance of being covered with a green carpet from the effect of the thinning, it is evidence that the work has been well done.

When shipped fresh, peaches are wrapped in soft paper and packed in twenty-pound boxes. The number of peaches shipped out of California is about 2,200 carloads annually. For local consumption in the larger cities, the peaches are shipped in open lug boxes, holding about forty pounds.

The free-stone peaches are the only ones dried, as a rule. These are first halved, the pits are removed, and the fruit is placed in trays. The drying takes place in the sun altogether. Before drying, the peaches are exposed to the fumes of sulfur for not less than four hours. This not only kills any insect life but gives the peaches a much more appetizing appearance. The very heavy tonnage of dried peaches, averaging 30,000 tons annually, would be utterly impossible to handle unless the same could be dried by exposure to the sun's rays. It requires from six to seven pounds of fresh peaches to make one pound of the dried product. Many persons object to the fuzzy skins on the dried fruit and in recent years peeled peaches have been in the markets in a limited way. The method of peeling has been to expose the halved peaches to the sulfur fumes for several hours. This loosens the skins and they peel off readily. This handling of the fruit is expensive, however, and with the difficulty of securing labor, it has not been practicable except on a small scale. This method has been very much improved, however, and the peaches after being halved arc now dipped in a hot lye bath for fifty seconds, using about one pound to ten gallons of water. The peaches are then given a bath in cold water, not only to remove
every vestige of lye, but to cause the skins to slough off. Peaches treated in this way sell at twice the price of the unpeeled peaches and the entire character of the fruit is changed. Outside of the Ive bath, which is the only additional treatment the fruit receives, the process is the same as is followed when the peaches are not peeled.

The canning of peaches is another important branch of the industry, the output from California being in the neighborhood of 84,000 tons annually. This work is conducted exclusively by commercial concerns having every modern appliance to handle the fruit expeditiously and turn out uniform grades. Outside of the halving of the peaches, which work is done by women, the work is accomplished entirely with machinery. Sanitary cans are used as containers and a limited quantity of the fruit is placed in glass jars. The commercializing of the industry has created a demand for well- defined standards. To illustrate this, the only peaches which are regarded as the leaders by the canning trade are the clings; and in the list of varieties, the Tuskena, Orange, and Phillips, all of which are yellow, are in the heaviest demand. Peaches that have no red at the pit are preferred for canning, as the syrup never becomes discolored. The important place which the canning industry occupies in the peacn business will be sure to bring about improvements in varieties to meet the demand for peaches with smaller pits, finer-grained and more highly flavored flesh. Already several new varieties, mostly chance seedlings, have been introduced and are attracting considerable attention. For shipping, Alexander, Briggs (Red May), Early Hale, Dewey. Imperial, Sneed, Elberta, and Salway are recognized as standards; for drying, Elberta, Foster, Late Crawford, Lovell, Muir, Susquehanna, and Wheatland; for canning, Tuscan, Runyon, and Seller (Orange) Clings, McDevitt and Phillip and Levy (or Henrietta).

Fortunately, the California peach orchards have never been threatened with insect pests or diseases that cannot be controlled. The crown root-borer is troublesome, in some sections, but it has always been under control. The San Jose scale is no longer regarded as a very serious pest, for it is held in check by predaceous insects and by spraying with lime-sulfur washes. Leaf- curl in some years gives considerable trouble, but if the trees are given a thorough spraying with bordeaux, it is easily controlled.

The average life of a peach orchard is twenty years, but there are many profitable orchards much older than this, when they have received good care.

A failure of a peach crop has never been known in California, and although in some years the crop has been curtailed by late spring frosts, growers have never practised smudging to any extent.

George C. Roeding.

Protecting peach trees in cold climates.

Numerous ways of protecting peach trees from the effects of trying winter weather have been devised. Such plans include the placing of a protective covering about the trunk and branches of the tree. Cornstalks, straw, hay, evergreen boughs, and similar materials may be used for this purpose. Some persons have tried the plan of laying the tree on the ground in an effort to make the work of covering easier as well as more effective.

Peach trees may be laid on one side with comparative ease and without much injury, providing the process is begun when the trees are small. The root-system is manipulated at this time in such a way that most of it extends in two opposite directions. This is accomplished by cutting the roots, beginning when the trees are small, preferably the first winter after planting and thus accustoming them to the operation from the beginning. If this plan is followed from the start, a little work with the spade will suffice to lay a tree down. Once on its side, the branches should be gathered together with twine and the covering put in place and weighted down.

An interesting method of laying a tree down without disturbing its roots was devised a number of years ago. This is accomplished by bending the newly planted tree over to the ground, where it is fastened. The side branches are cut off at first as fast as they appear, thus inducing a long straight growth. After the prostrate stem has attained a length of 10 to 12 feet, an upright top is allowed to develop. At the approach of winter, the top of a tree trained in this manner can be pushed over easily, as the long prostrate trunk serves as a lever or pivot. The long exposed trunk will need to be protected at all times from the effects of the sun. This is easiest done by using an inverted trough made of light boards.

The process of laying trees down under irrigated conditions is somewhat simplified, as the ground can be made very soft by the use of water. Here, again, the work should be begun the first winter after planting. The ground about the young tree is first saturated with water from the irrigation ditch. The trees are then pushed over in the direction that offers the least resistance. After the branches have been drawn together with cord, they are covered first with burlap, then with a light coating of earth. As the trees become more mature, a basin about 4 feet in diameter is made in the earth about the trunks before the water is turned in.

The nicest of judgment must be used in removing the covering in the spring, as a little too much warmth or a slight exposure to cold may mean the loss of the year's work. At the first sign of swelling buds in the spring, the earth covering must be lightened during the middle of the day and replaced for the night. As growing weather comes on, still more of the covering is removed and a certain amount put back each night until the tree is raised for the summer. The danger of damage by cold continues until the fruits have attained considerable size, consequently the work of uncovering in the middle of the day and of covering for the night extends through a comparatively long period.

After the danger of damage by frost is passed, the ground is again irrigated and the trees are raised. Trees so handled are unable to support themselves in an upright position, consequently they are supported at an angle by props. It is estimated that the entire labor of laying a tree down, covering and of raising again in the spring, can be done at a cost of 50 cents a tree.
W. Paddock.
}}

==References==
<references/>
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
__NOTOC__

Cherry

2015-03-05T01:56:15Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Prunus
|species=-various-
|common_name=Cherry
|habit=tree
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=deciduous, flowers, edible, fruit
|flowers=white, single
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=3
|max_zone=on
|image=Cherries summerland.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Cherries in an orchard
}}
The '''cherry''' is the [[fruit]] of many plants of the genus ''[[Prunus]]'', and is a fleshy [[stone fruit]]. The cherry fruits of commerce are usually obtained from a limited number of species, including especially [[cultivars]] of the [[wild cherry]], ''Prunus avium''.

The name 'cherry', often as the compound term 'cherry tree', may also be applied to many other members of the genus Prunus, or to all members of the genus as a collective term. The fruits of many of these are not cherries, and have other common names, including [[plum]], [[apricot]], [[peach]], and others. The name 'cherry' is also frequently used in reference to [[cherry blossom]].

The cultivated forms are of the species [[wild cherry]] (''P. avium'') to which most cherry [[cultivar]]s belong, and the [[sour cherry]] (''P. cerasus''), which is used mainly for cooking. Both species originate in Europe and western Asia; they do not cross-pollinate. Some other species, although having edible fruit, are not grown extensively for consumption, except in northern regions where the two main species will not grow. Irrigation, spraying, labor and their propensity to damage from rain and hail make cherries relatively expensive. Nonetheless, there is high demand for the fruit.

Cherries have a very short growing season and can grow in most temperate latitudes. The peak season for cherries is in the summer. In Australia they are usually at their peak around [[Christmas]] time, in southern Europe in June, in North America in June, in south British Columbia (Canada) in July-mid August and in the UK in mid July. In many parts of North America they are among the first tree fruits to ripen.

{{Inc|
Cherry. Several kinds or types of small stone fruits ripening in late spring and in summer; widespread and popular in domestic and commercial use.

Sweet and sour cherries have been domesticated from two Old World species: cultivated sweet cherries having come from Prunus Avium and the sour cherries from Prunus Cerasus. Varieties of these two species, and hybrids between them, now encircle the globe in the north temperate zone and are being rapidly disseminated throughout the temperate parts of the southern hemisphere. For centuries, probably from the beginnings of agriculture, cherries have been valuable fruit-producing trees in Europe and Asia,— inhabitants of nearly every orchard and garden as well as common roadside trees in temperate climates of both continents.

Coming from the Old World to the New, the cherry has played an important part in the orcharding in temperate regions of the western hemisphere. In North America, varieties of one or the other of the two cultivated species are grown from Newfoundland to Vancouver Island on the north, southward to the Gulf of California, Texas and Florida, probably yielding crops in a greater diversity of soils and climates on this continent than any other tree fruit.

Sour cherries are suited to many environments, thriving in various soils and withstanding rather better than most orchard fruits heat, cold and atmospheric dryness, and though they respond to good care, yet they thrive under neglect better than most other tree fruits. Sour cherries also have fewer insect and fungous troubles than other tree fruits, being practically immune to the dreaded San Jose scale. Sweet cherries, however, are much less easily grown. Sweet varieties are all somewhat fastidious as to soils, are lacking in hardiness to both heat and cold, are prey to more insects than sour cherries and subject to nearly all of the fungous ills to which stone-fruits are heir, suffering in America in particular from brown-rot and leaf-spot.Sweet cherries can be grown with commercial success in but few and comparatively limited regions, although the localities adapted to sweet varieties are rather widely distributed.

The cherry is probably the most popular of temperate climate fruits for the home yard, being planted more commonly than any other tree-fruit, in the many regions in which it is grown, in the dooryard, garden and along the roadside. The characters, other than those already named, that commend it for home plantations, are, early bearing after planting, early ripening in the season, regularity in bearing, great fruitfulness and ease of culture. It is more than a home fruit, however, and is largely grown for the markets, for canning and for preserving.

In America, the consumption of cherries is being greatly increased by the fashion of adding them preserved to many ices and drinks. The demand for canned cherries has also increased enormously in this country during the last few years. In Europe, wine is made from cherries, "kirschwasser," a spirit, is distilled from the fermented fruit pulp, and in the Austrian province of Dalmatia a cordial called maraschino is made by a secret process of fermentation and distillation. This liquor is imported to America in considerable quantities to flavor preserved cherries which become the well-known "maraschino cherries" of confection and delicatessen shops.

Other species.

Several species of cherries other than the two named have more or less horticultural value. Prunus Padus and Prunus Mahaleb of the Old World furnish fruits sometimes used for culinary purposes but much more cultivated, in their various forms, as ornamentals; the latter furnishes a stock upon which orchard varieties are now most commonly budded. Prunus Besseyi, Prunus pumila and Prunus pennsylvanica are species from North America, the first two having varieties cultivated for their fruits and all three being used as ornamentals and for stocks. Prunus Pseudo-Cerasus and Prunus tomentosa from Asia are much grown in China and Japan as ornamentals, for their fruits and as stocks, and should find favor in Europe and America for these purposes. In recent years many new species of cherries have been discovered in Asia. E. Koehne, one of the best authorities on the genus Prunus, places 120 species, nearly all from Asia, in the sub-genus Cerasus to which belong the orchard cherries (Mitt. Deut. Dendrol. Gesell., 1912:168-183). A few of these have already been introduced in America by the United States Department of Agriculture, and from them one is sure to find valuable horticultural species to be used for their fruits, as ornamentals, as stocks, and for hybridization with species already domesticated.

Types and varieties.

There are now about 600 varieties of cherries grown in America and Europe, and the names of as many more that have passed from cultivation remain. These are variously grouped, but the following simple classification takes in the common orchard sorts:

(1) The Hearts.—Large, heart-shaped, soft-fleshed, sweet cherries, light-colored as represented by Governor Wood and dark as in Black Tartarian.

(2) The Bigarreaus.—Large, sweet, heart-shaped and colored as in the previous group but with firm, crisp and crackling flesh. Well represented by Napoleon (Fig. 909) and Yellow Spanish as light-colored members of the group, and by Schmidt and Bing as dark sorts.

(3) The Dukes.—-Somewhat smaller cherries than the Hearts and Bigarreaus, softer in flesh, light-colored and usually sour or nearly so. This group is placed under Prunus Avium, but there can be no doubt but that the widely varying Dukes are hybrids between Prunus Avium and Prunus Cerasus. May Duke and Reine Hortense serve as illustrations of the group.

(1) The Amarelles.—Rather small, light-colored, sour cherries with colorless or nearly colorless juice, produced on upright trees, represented by Early Richmond and Montmorency (Fig. 910).

(2) The Morellos.—Also comparatively small and very sour but dark in color and with dark-colored juice and trees with a dropping habit, represented by English Morello and Louis Philippe.

In spite of the great number of varieties, the cherry, of all stone-fruits, seems most fixed in its characters. Thus, the difference between tree and fruit in the cherries of the several groups is comparatively slight and many of the varieties come nearly true to seed. So, too, cherries, although probably domesticated as long ago as any other of the tree-fruits, are now most of all like their wild progenitors. Notwithstanding this stability, there are probably rich rewards to be secured in breeding cherries by those who will put in practice the discoveries of recent years in plant-breeding, and will hybridize especially the various groups of the two species now cultivated and introduce wholly new blood from wild species. So little effort has been directed toward improving cherries, and the material seems so promising, that it would seem that with proper endeavor the coming generation may have a new and greatly improved cultivated cherry flora.U.P.Hedrick.

The cherry in California.

In commercial importance, the cherry is least of the fruits of the temperate zone grown in California on a commercial scale—not considering the quince and nectarine, of which the product is almost insignificant. This is not because the finest cherries cannot be grown, but because the avenues for the disposition of the product are not so wide as for other leading fruits. Recently there are indications that these avenues will be widened, for, in the year 1912, 244 carloads were profitably shipped in a fresh state to eastern markets, and in 1911 a product equivalent to 243,010 cases (each containing two dozen 2½-pound cans) of canned cherries were disposed of to advantage. In 1910, there was large shipment of barreled cherries in sulfur water to eastern bottlers who put up maraschino cherries in competition with importations, but this business seems to have transgressed the pure food laws and declined. Until it is demonstrated that such distant demands will increase, present plantations will not be largely extended. Cherries are costly in picking and packing, and the chance of low price in a local market, over-supplied whenever the trees do their full duty, the grower does not enjoy. Cherry-drying has never seemed warranted on a large scale, because of the large amount of labor required to the pound of product; and the grower has had no recourse when the canner and local consumer would pay only the cost of picking and boxing. A good shipping demand seems, therefore, the measure of the extension of California's cherry interest, and the early ripening of the fruit, which permits its sale during the blooming season of eastern cherry trees, is the leading surety of such demand. On several occasions early varieties have been shipped from the Vacaville district overland, on March 31, but the usual opening date is about two weeks later, and thence onward later varieties, and from later regions, may be shipped until July, if found profitable.

But, although there is plenty of good land upon which to multiply the present total of three-quarters of a million trees, the cherry regions of California are restricted. It is one of the most exacting of all trees, and is profitable only when its requirements are respected. About one-half of the present acreage lies in valleys opening upon the bay of San Francisco, where deep and moist, but well-drained alluvial soil fosters strong and sound root-growth, and modified atmospheric aridity favors leaf and fruiting. On similar deep and moist soils, however, the sweet cherry enters the hot interior valleys to certain limits, chiefly along the river bottoms. It abhors dry plains. In dry air it usually refuses to fruit, although, if the soil be moist, it may make stalwart tree-growth. In foot-hill valleys it sometimes does admirably; both in growth and fruiting, and in mountain valleys, above an elevation of 2,000 feet, on good soil, and in the greater rainfall, and even with the snow flurries, which are experienced every year at proper elevations, the tree becomes very thrifty and profitable to the limits of local markets. The tree seems to have no geographical limitations in California; wherever suitable soil and weather conditions occur, it accepts the situation—the Dukes and Morellos succeeding under conditions too trying for the Hearts and Bigarreaus, but the latter, only, are of commercial account.

Cherry trees are grown by budding upon Mazzard and Mahaleb seedlings—both being largely imported. It is customary to plant out in orchards at the end of the first year's growth from the bud, though two-year old cherry trees can be more successfully handled than other two-year -olds. The trees are headed at 1 or 2 feet from the ground, cut back to promote low branching for two years, and then allowed to make long branches, and not usually shortened-in, so long as thrifty and healthy. The tree, in a good environment, is, however, a very hardy tree, and will endure pruning to almost any degree. There are many trees which have made a very broad but not usually high growth, bearing 1,000 pounds of fruit to the tree, and a few others which have even doubled that figure, while others have been dwarfed and trained en espalier. The commercial orchards are, however; uniformly of low trees, approximately of vase form in exterior outline, and with branches curving outward without shortening.

The cherry is very readily grafted over by the usual top-grafting methods, and large orchards have been thus transformed into varieties more acceptable for canning or shipping. Comparatively few varieties are grown. Early Purple Guigne, Chapman and Knights Early Black are grown in early-ripening localities. Black Tartarian, Lewelling and Bing are the mainstay for black cherries. The Napoleon Bigarreau (locally known as Royal Ann) is the ideal for a white cherry, and almost excludes all others, although the Rockport Bigarreau has some standing. Of all the varieties grown, the Black Tartarian and Napoleon (Fig. 909) constitute 70 per cent of the crop, and probably 90 per cent of the amount marketed.

California-grown cherries attain large size; the canner's requirement for fancy fruit is a diameter not less than ⅞of an inch, and for No. 1 not less than ¾of an inch. Wholesale prices usually range from $40 to $60 a ton for black and $80 to $120 for white, but occasionally canners have paid as high as $160 a ton for white cherries. The higher rates can be expected only in years of short crops.{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{Inc|
Sweet cherries are most profitably grown on high, comparatively light, sandy, gravelly or even stony loams, while sour cherries do best on somewhat heavier soils. The former are set 22 to 24 feet apart; the latter 16 to 20 feet. Both respond to care in cultivation which, in brief is: early spring plowing, frequent cultivation until the first of August with a cover-crop sown just before the last cultivation. Cover-crops are various— a favorite one in New York and Michigan is a half bushel of oats or barley, and twelve pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter vetch. In Delaware and New Jersey the cowpea is much liked as a cover-crop. Cherry trees are usually headed 2 or 3 feet from the ground with a tendency to head them lower—half the above distances; in the lower-headed orchards there seems to be no inconvenience in tilling with modern implements. Nearly all commercial growers form the head with five to seven main branches about a central trunk, but some prefer to remove the central stem, especially in sweet varieties, leaving a vase-formed head. After the head is formed, the subsequent pruning is exceedingly simple, consisting of cutting out an occasional injured or crossed branch and now and then heading-in a long whip-like growth.
In soils well adapted to cherry-growing, commercial fertilizers are little needed. Good cultivation, the yearly cover-crop and an occasional dressing of stable-manure furnish an abundance of food. If, with this treatment, the trees fail to make sufficient growth, and if the drainage be good, the grower should experiment with fertilizers containing potash, phosphoric acid or nitrogen to see which, if any, his trees may need.

Cherries are picked with stems on, the sweet a few days before fully ripe, the sour when practically mature. Some growers guard against breaking the fruit-spurs for the next year by using picking scissors. Cherries are variously packed in boxes and baskets but the container is usually a small one and much art may be displayed in placing in layers, facing, and in making the package in all ways attractive. Fruit for canning must be carefully picked but is sent to the cannery in trays holding one or two pecks.
The chief commercial plantations in eastern America are found in New York, New Jersey, Delaware, northern Ohio and western Michigan. Sweet-cherry growing is precarious because of natural obstacles, and sour cherries are so easily grown that through very abundance their sale is often difficult. Yet with both success has been attained by many, the profits ranging as high as $300 to the acre.
{{SCH}}
}}

===Propagation===
{{Inc|
Both orchard and ornamental cherries are commonly propagated in Europe and America by budding on Mazzard or Mahaleb stocks and in Japan, where cherries are much grown, on Prunus Pseudo-Cerasus. When exceptional hardiness is required, seedlings of the Russian sour cherries may be used or those of Prunus Besseyi or Prunus pennsylvanica. Undoubtedly the Mazzard is the best stock for regions in which cherries can be grown commercially. Upon the Mazzard, varieties of either sweet or sour cherries make larger, thriftier, longer-lived and more productive trees. The Mahaleb, on the other hand, is the best stock from the nurseryman's point of view. It is more easily budded, hardier, freer from insects and fungi as it stands in the nursery before budding, and the buds more quickly develop into salable trees. But the advantages of the Mazzard are so much greater for the fruitgrower that he should accept only trees on this stock unless hardiness be a prime requisite. Cherries are set in the orchard at two years from the bud.
{{SCH}}
}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{Inc|
The cherry is attacked by a dozen or more fungi. Of these, three are serious pests. The brown-rot, Sclerotinia fructigena, attacks the flowers, leaves, twigs and most disastrously the fruits at ripening time. Leaf-blight, Cylindrosporium Padi, produces diseased spots on the leaves, which for the most part drop out, giving a shot-hole effect and eventually causing the foliage to drop prematurely. A common and striking disease of the cherry is black-knot, Plowrightia morbosa, characterized by wart-like excrescences on shoots and branches which at maturity are black; affected parts sooner or later die.

The text-books give no less than forty insect enemies of cherries, of which the plum-curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphor, the peach-borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa, and the San Jose scale, Aspidiotus perniciosus, on sweet cherries, must be combated. All of the pests named, both fungi and insects, are more destructive to plums and peaches, and the reader is referred to these fruits for treatment which is much the same as for the cherry.

Sweet cherries suffer severely in the South and the Mississippi Valley, and somewhat in the North, from sun-scald, either directly from the sun's rays or from alternate freezing and thawing in winter or spring. The injury is manifested by the bursting of the bark and the exudation of gum on the south and west sides of the tree. Some immunity from such injuries may be obtained by protecting the trunks with boards or other screens. "Gummosis," or a flow of gum from the wood, often follows injuries of various kinds and the work of insects and fungi in both sweet and sour cherries.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Species==
Several, including{{wp}}:<br/>
* ''[[Prunus alabamensis]]'' C. Mohr - Alabama cherry
* ''[[Prunus alaica]]'' (Pojark.) Gilli
* ''[[Prunus apetala]]'' (Siebold & Zucc.) Franch. & Sav. - Clove cherry
* ''[[Prunus avium]]'' (L.) L. - Wild cherry, Sweet cherry, Mazzard or Gean
* ''[[Prunus campanulata]]'' Maxim. - Taiwan cherry, Formosan cherry or Bell-flowered cherry
* ''[[Prunus canescens]]'' Bois. - Greyleaf cherry
* ''[[Prunus caroliniana]]'' Aiton - Carolina laurel cherry or Laurel cherry
* ''[[Prunus cerasoides]]'' D. Don. - Wild Himalayan cherry
* ''[[Prunus cerasus]]'' L. - Sour cherry
* ''[[Prunus cistena]]'' Koehne - Purpleleaf sand cherry
* ''[[Prunus clarofolia]]'' C.K. Schneid.
* ''[[Prunus concinna]]'' Koehne
* ''[[Prunus conradinae]]'' Koehne
* ''[[Prunus cornuta]]'' (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. - Himalayan bird cherry
* ''[[Prunus cuthbertii]]'' Small - Cuthbert cherry
* ''[[Prunus cyclamina]]'' Koehne - Cyclamen cherry or Chinese flowering cherry
* ''[[Prunus dawyckensis]]'' Sealy - Dawyck cherry
* ''[[Prunus dielsiana]]'' C.K. Schneid. - Tailed-leaf cherry
* ''[[Prunus emarginata]]'' (Douglas ex Hook.) Walp. - Oregon cherry or Bitter cherry
* ''[[Prunus eminens]]'' Beck - {{lang-de|mittlere Weichsel}} (Semi-sour cherry)
* ''[[Prunus fruticosa]]'' Pall. - European dwarf cherry, Dwarf cherry, Mongolian cherry or Steppe cherry
* ''[[Prunus glandulifolia]]'' Rupr. & Maxim.
* ''[[Prunus gondouinii]]'' (Poit. & Turpin) Rehder - Duke cherry
* ''[[Prunus grayana]]'' Maxim. - Japanese bird cherry or Gray's bird cherry
* ''[[Prunus himalaica]]'' Kitam.
* ''[[Prunus humilis]]'' Bunge - Chinese plum-cherry or Humble bush cherry
* ''[[Prunus ilicifolia]]'' (Nutt. ex Hook. & Arn.) Walp. - Hollyleaf cherry, Evergreen cherry, Holly-leaved cherry or Islay
* ''[[Prunus incisa]]'' Thunb. - Fuji cherry
* ''[[Prunus jamasakura]]'' Siebold ex Koidz. - Japanese mountain cherry or Japanese hill cherry
* ''[[Prunus japonica]]'' Thunb. - Korean cherry
* ''[[Prunus juddii]]'' E.S. Anderson
* ''[[Prunus laurocerasus]]'' L. - Cherry laurel or English laurel
* ''[[Prunus leveilleana]]'' Koehne
* ''[[Prunus litigiosa]]'' C.K. Schneid.
* ''[[Prunus lusitanica]]'' L. - Portugal laurel
* ''[[Prunus lyonii]]'' (Eastw.) Sarg. - Catalina Island cherry
* ''[[Prunus maackii]]'' Rupr. - Manchurian cherry or Amur chokecherry
* ''[[Prunus mahaleb]]'' L. - Saint Lucie cherry, Rock cherry, Perfumed cherry or Mahaleb cherry
* ''[[Prunus maximowiczii]]'' Rupr. - Miyama cherry or Korean cherry
* ''[[Prunus meyeri]]'' Rehder
* ''[[Prunus myrtifolia]]'' (L.) Urb. - West Indian cherry
* ''[[Prunus nepaulensis]]'' (Ser.) Steud. - Nepal bird cherry
* ''[[Prunus nipponica]]'' Matsum. - Takane cherry, Peak cherry or Japanese Alpine cherry
* ''[[Prunus occidentalis]]'' Sw. - Western cherry laurel
* ''[[Prunus padus]]'' L. - Bird cherry or European bird cherry
* ''[[Prunus pensylvanica]]'' L.f. - Pin cherry, Fire cherry, or Wild red cherry
* ''[[Prunus pilosiuscula]]'' (C.K. Schneid.) Koehne
* ''[[Prunus pleiocerasus]]'' Koehne
* ''[[Prunus pleuradenia]]'' Griseb. - Antilles cherry
* ''[[Prunus prostrata]]'' Labill. - Mountain cherry, Rock cherry, Spreading cherry or Prostrate cherry
* ''[[Prunus pseudocerasus]]'' Lindl. - Chinese sour cherry or False cherry
* ''[[Prunus pumila]]'' L. - Sand cherry
* ''[[Prunus rufa]]'' Wall ex Hook.f. - Himalayan cherry
* ''[[Prunus salicifolia]]'' Kunth. - Capulin, Singapore cherry or Tropic cherry
* ''[[Prunus sargentii]]'' Rehder - Sargent's cherry or Ezo Mountain cherry
* ''[[Prunus schmittii]]'' Rehder
* ''[[Prunus serotina]]'' Ehrh. - Black cherry
* ''[[Prunus serrula]]'' Franch. - Paperbark cherry, Birch bark cherry or Tibetan cherry
* ''[[Prunus serrulata]]'' Lindl. - Japanese cherry, Hill cherry, Oriental cherry or East Asian cherry
* ''[[Prunus setulosa]]'' Batalin
* ''[[Prunus sieboldii]]'' (Carriere) Wittm.
* ''[[Prunus speciosa]]'' (Koidz.) Ingram - Oshima cherry
* ''[[Prunus ssiori]]'' Schmidt- Hokkaido bird cherry
* ''[[Prunus stipulacea]]'' Maxim.
* ''[[Prunus subhirtella]]'' Miq. - Higan cherry or Spring cherry
* ''[[Prunus takasagomontana]]'' Sasaki
* ''[[Prunus takesimensis]]'' Nakai - Takeshima flowering cherry
* ''[[Prunus tomentosa]]'' Thunb. - Nanking cherry, Manchu cherry, Downy cherry, Shanghai cherry, Ando cherry, Mountain cherry, Chinese dwarf cherry, Chinese bush cherry or Hansen's bush cherry
* ''[[Prunus trichostoma]]'' Koehne
* ''[[Prunus verecunda]]'' (Koidz.) Koehne - Korean mountain cherry
* ''[[Prunus virginiana]]'' L. - Chokecherry
* ''[[Prunus x yedoensis]]'' Matsum. - Yoshino cherry or Tokyo cherry

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Cherries.jpg|Ripe cherries, stacked and on display for sale on a market in [[Barcelona]]
Image:Cerisier3.1s.JPG|Formation of the cherry fruit at beginning of May (France)
Image:Cherry flowers.jpg|White Cherry Flowers
Image:Cherry.jpg|Cherry blossoms
Image:Washington C D.C. Tidal Basin cherry trees.jpg|Washington, D.C. Tidal Basin showing cherry trees in flower
Image:Cherry tree blossoms.jpg|Cherry tree flowers
Image:Cherry tree blossoms.JPG|White Cherry Tree Blossoms
Image:Cherries1.jpg|Cherries (variety Lambert) - watercolor 1894
Image:Cherry closeup.jpeg|Cherries with leaf
Image:YamagataCherries.jpg|[[Yamagata]] cherries
Image:Kirschbluete001.jpg|Cherry tree flowers
Image:442898701_88b12bf42e.jpg|Pink Cherry Tree Blossoms
Image:Cherry_IMG_2655.jpg|Cherry opened.
Image:Prunus avium1.jpg|''Prunus avium'' ripening fruit
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

__NOTOC__

Serviceberry

2015-03-05T01:55:00Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Amelanchier
|common_name=Serviceberry
|name_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|habit=tree
|habit_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|Min ht box=20
|Min ht metric=ft
|Max ht box=40
|Max ht metric=ft
|height_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|lifespan=perennial
|life_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|exposure=sun
|sun_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|water=moist, moderate
|water_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|features=deciduous, fall color
|flower_season=early spring
|flower_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|flowers=pink, white
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=2
|usda_ref=Complete Landscaping - ISBN 9780376009272
|max_zone=7.5
|image=Amelanchier grandiflora2.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption='Amelanchier lamarckii'' in flower
}}
The '''Serviceberry''' (''Amelanchier''), also known as '''juneberry''', '''mespilus''', '''sarvis''', '''shad-blossom''' and '''shadbush''', is a [[genus]] of about 25 species of small [[deciduous]] [[tree]]s and large [[shrub]]s in the family [[Rosaceae]].Serviceberries are very popular [[ornamental plant|ornamental shrubs]], grown for their flowers, bark, and fall color. In some areas an ''Amelanchier'' species is known as the '''currant-tree''', but it is unrelated to currants (of genus [[Ribes]]). The genus has a wide distribution in the temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], with the majority of the species in [[North America]] and single species in [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].

The name serviceberry comes from the similarity of the [[fruit]] to the related European [[Service Tree]], ''Sorbus domestica'', a name that in turn is derived via the [[French language|French]] ''sorbier'' from the [[Latin]] name for the tree ''sorbus'', recorded by [[Pliny the Elder]]. A widespread [[folk etymology]] states that plant's flowering time signaled to early American [[settler|pioneer]]s that the ground had thawed enough in spring for the burial of the winter's dead. The name ''Amelanchier'' is derived from the French name ''amelanche'' of the European serviceberry. The city name of [[Saskatoon]] in [[Saskatchewan]] comes from a [[Cree]] Indian name ''misaaskwatoomin'' for the [[juneberry]].

The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, entire or finely serrate, oval, 2-10 cm long and 1-4 cm broad, green, often turning brilliant orange or red in the fall. The [[flower]]s are white, 2-4 cm diameter, with five petals, and borne in terminal racemes of 5-25. The flowers appear in early spring, "when the [[shad]] run" according to tradition (leading to names such as "shadbush"). The fruit is a small [[pome]], 1-2 cm diameter, blue-black, edible and often sweet, maturing in summer (whence the name 'juneberry').

Serviceberries are preferred browse for deer and rabbits, and heavy browsing pressure can suppress natural regeneration. [[Brimstone Moth]], [[Brown-tail]], ''[[Bucculatricidae|Bucculatrix pomifoliella]]'', [[Grey Dagger]], [[Gypsy moth]], [[Mottled Umber]], [[Satellite (moth)|The Satellite]], [[Winter Moth]] and other defoliating insects also have a taste for serviceberry. The same insects and diseases that attack orchard trees also affect this genus, in particular trunk borers and ''[[Gymnosporangium]]'' rust. In years when late flowers overlap those of wild roses and brambles, bees may spread bacterial [[fireblight]].

{{Inc|
Amelanchier (said to be a Savoy name). Rosàceae. Shad-bush. Juneberry. Ornamental woody subjects chiefly cultivated for their profuse white flowers appearing in early spring; some species also grown for their fruits.

Deciduous shrubs or small trees: winter-buds conspicuous, pointed, with several imbricate scales: Lvs. alternate, petioled, serrate: fls. in racemes terminal on short branchlets, rarely solitary; calyx-tube campanulate, adnate to the ovary, with 5 persistent lobes; petals 5; stamens 10-20; styles 2-5; ovary inferior, 2-5-celled, each cell with 2 ovules and subdivided : fr. a berry-like pome, juicy, with a cavity at the top.—About 20 or 25 species, most of them in N. Amer., 2 in Mex., 4 in Eu., and W. Asia, and 1 in E. Asia. The species are closely related and often difficult to distinguish, especially as numerous spontaneous hybrids apparently occur. For a detailed treatment of the species of E. N. Amer., see Wiegand in Rhodora 14, p. 117 (1912). In trade catalogues, they are sometimes confused with Aronia, which is easily distinguished by its compound corymbose infl., 5-celled mealy fr. and by the midrib of the Lvs. being glandular above.

The amelanchiers are deciduous shrubs or trees with simple, suborbicular to oblong serrate leaves, rather email white flowers in racemes followed by purplish or bluish black berry-like fruits. They are very desirable for ornament, producing a profusion of white flowers in early spring, and range from shrubs only a few feet high, as A. humilis and A. stolonifera, to trees attaining 40 feet in height, as A. canadensis and A. laevis. The latter species is perhaps the most beautiful, the white color of the pendulous loose racemes being enhanced by the red bracts and the bronzy red color of the unfolding leaves; the other species are pure white when blooming, the young leaves being covered by a whitish tomentum.

A. humilis and A. stolonifera and also A. sanguínea seem to be the best for fruit, which ripens later than the others; there is also a large-fruited form of A. laevis. See Juneberry.
All the species mentioned below are hardy North and thrive upon a variety of soils and succeed well in dry climates; some, as A. sanguínea, A. humilis and A. rotundifolia show a preference for calcareous soil and grow well in dry situations, while others, as A. oblongifolia and A. Bartramiana prefer moist and swampy soil.

Propagation is by seeds sown soon after ripening or stratified and sown in spring and the stoloniferous species also by suckers; rare kinds are sometimes budded in summer on a common species or on Crataegus.

A. Cusickii. Fernald. Shrub, to 10 ft.: Lvs. suborbicular, about 1½ in. long, glabrous or nearly so: fls. large, petals oblong, about ¾ in. long: fr. scarlet, finally black. Ore. and Wash, to Idaho.—Not in cult., but ought to be intro., as it has the largest fls. of all.— A. utahensis, Koehne. Dwarf shrub with small obovate Lvs. scarcely 1 in. long, pubescent on both sides: racemes short, with very small II -. Utah and Ariz.—Not in cult.; the plant cult. under this name belongs to another species, to which could not be determined.
}}

==Cultivation==
All serviceberries need similar conditions to grow well, requiring good drainage, air circulation (to discourage leaf diseases), watering during drought and acceptable [[soil]].

===Propagation===
Propagation is by seed, divisions and grafting. Serviceberries graft so readily that grafts with other genera, such as ''Crataegus'' and ''Sorbus'', are often successful.

===Pests and diseases===

==Species==
;Selected species
*''[[Amelanchier alnifolia]]'' - Juneberry, Saskatoon Serviceberry, Pacific serviceberry, pigeonberry, rocky mountain servicetree, sarvice, sarviceberry, saskatoon, western serviceberry, western shadbush
*''[[Amelanchier arborea]]'' - Downy Serviceberry, Allegheny serviceberry, apple shadbush, northern smooth shadbush, shadblow, shadbush serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier asiatica]]'' - Asian Serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier bartramiana]]'' - Bartram serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier basalticola]]''
*''[[Amelanchier canadensis]]'' - Thicket Serviceberry, American lancewood, currant-tree, downy serviceberry, Indian cherry, Indian wild pear, juice plum, juiceberry, may cherry, sarvice, servicetree, shadblow, shadbush
*''[[Amelanchier confusa]]''
*''[[Amelanchier florida]]'' - Pacific serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier humilis]]''
*''[[Amelanchier interior]]'' - inland serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier laevis]]'' - Allegheny Serviceberry, Smooth Serviceberry
*''[[Amelanchier lamarckii]]'' - Snowy Mespilus, June Berry (syn. ''A. grandiflora'')
*''[[Amelanchier ovalis]]'' - European Serviceberry, Snowy Mespilus
*''[[Amelanchier sanguinea]]'' - Huron serviceberry, roundleaf juneberry, roundleaf serviceberry, shore shadbush
*''[[Amelanchier spicata]]''
*''[[Amelanchier stolonifera]]'' - Running Shadbush
*''[[Amelanchier utahensis]]'' - Utah Serviceberry

Note that species names are often used interchangeably in the nursery trade. Many ''A. arborea'' plants that are offered for sale are actually hybrids, or entirely different species.<ref>[http://www.hort.net/profile/ros/amear/ Amelanchier arborea], hort.net Plant Profiles, consulted [[2007-01-24]]</ref>

==Gallery==

<gallery perrow=5>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
<references/>
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
__NOTOC__

Pear

2015-03-05T01:53:22Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Pyrus
|common_name=Pear
|habit=tree
|Min ht box=10
|Min ht metric=ft
|Max ht box=15
|Max ht metric=ft
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=deciduous, edible, fruit
|flower_season=mid spring
|flowers=white
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=3
|max_zone=8
|image=Pears.jpg
|image_width=180
|image_caption=[[European Pear]] branch with fruit
}}
{{Inc|
Pear. A popular fruit and tree of the genus Pyrus, long cultivated
and much modified.

The cultivated pear, as known in North America, is derived from two
distinct sources, the European Pyrus communis and the Oriental Pyrus
scrotina. Pears of the European stock have been grown in North
America from the earliest settlement of the country. They thrive
particularly well in the New England states and New York, and west to
the Great Lakes, and again on the Pacific slope. In the great
interior basin, pear-culture always has been precarious, due
primarily to the great liability of the trees to blight. In the
southern states, the climate is too hot for the best development of
the tree and the best quality of the fruit. In the north prairie
states, the winter climate is so severe that the pear tree will not
grow. Forms of pears are shown in Figs. 2806 and 2807, as
representing the common species.

Some time before the middle of the preceding century the sand or
Chinese pear (Pyrus serotina, formerly and, as it now appears,
erroneously, identified as P. sinensis), Fig. 2808, was introduced
into the eastern states, although it attracted little attention. It
soon hybridized with the common pear, and a race of mongrel varieties
was the result. Of these hybrids, only two have gained great
commercial prominence. These are LeConte and Kieffer. The LeConte, which appeared about the middle of last
century and which is the first of the American hybrids, so far as we
know, was found to be well adapted to the southern states and its
general introduction there after the close of the Civil War was the
beginning of commercial pear-culture in the South. It was first
supposed to be blight-proof, but. in later years, orchards have been
nearly decimated by the blight, with the result that the LeConte is gradually lessening in importance and its place is being taken by the Kieffer, although the latter is by no means blight- free. The Kieffer pear originated with Peter Kieffer, of Roxborough, Philadelphia, an Alsatian gardener, who died in 1890. He grew the Chinese sand pear or Sha Lea and sold the seedlings as ornamental trees, for this species is of very distinct and handsome growth and the fruit is ornamental and fragrant.

Alongside the sand pears were Bartletts. Amongst one of the batches
of seedlings from the sand pear he noticed a plant with different
foliage, and this he saved. Its fruit was found to be superior to the
sand pear, and it was introduced as the Kieffer. It fruited in 1873.
The Kieffer pear is now very popular in many parts of the country
because of its great vigor,healthiness, productiveness, and the
keeping qualities of the fruit. In point of quality, the fruit is
distinctly inferior, but it meets the demands of the market and is an
excellent fruit for canning.

Pyrus serotina itself bears a very hard pear which is inedible in the
raw state, but it is excellent when used as quinces are. It is
fragrant and ornamental. The tree is a most vigorous and clean
grower. The plant is well worth growing as an ornamental. It is used
for stock for ordinary pears, particularly in the southern states.
For an historical and horticultural account of the oriental pears and
their hybrids, see Bulletin No. 332, Cornell Experiment Station, by
Cox (under direction of the late John Craig).

In the cold prairie countries and other parts of the cold north,
Russian pears have gained some headway in recent years. These are
hardy types of Pyrus com- munis. The fruit is usually of low quality,
but the trees are considerably hardier than the ordinary pear.
Pear-culture is the one American fruit industry which seems to show
little expansion. Pears are not a popular dessert fruit in this
country, and the product is largely used in canning. This is a great
pity, and a loss to the people. The cultivation of the Kieffer on a
large scale has probably bred a generation of people who are little
aware that the pear is a fruit that may be good to eat out of hand;
and the commercial and cultural difficulties are greater than with
other fruits.

The pear thrives on a variety of soils, but it succeeds best on those
that are rather hard clay. On sandy and loamy lands it tends to be
short-lived. This is perhaps due, in part, to the fact that trees
grow rapidly on such lands, and are, therefore, more liable to the
attacks of blight. It is now generally accepted that trees which are
making a strong and soft growth are more susceptible to blight than
those which grow rather slow and firm, although all trees are liable
to attack. Some varieties are more nearly immune than others. Caution
must be exercised, therefore, in the tilling of the pear orchard.
Whilst pears profit by the best tillage, as apples and potatoes do,
it is easy to carry the tilling and fertilizing so far as to produce
top vigorous growth and thereby invite the blight, and this disease
is the one great menace to pear-culture. Therefore the most careful
pear- growers use sparingly of stable manure and of nitrogenous
cover-crops. They prefer to supply fertility by means of concentrated
fertilizers which are not very rich in nitrogen. If, however, the
trees are not making a strong and steady growth, it is as necessary
to apply nitrogenous fertilizers to the pear tree as to any other.
In the interior country, pears are likely to suffer from sun-scald,
and therefore the tops are started very low, usually not more than 2
or 3 feet from the ground. Standard pears (those not grown as dwarfs)
are pruned much as are apple trees, except not so severely. Heavy
pruning may open the top and invite sun-scald, and it also tends to
make too strong and sappy growth. After the top of the pear tree is
well formed and established, it is customary to do little pruning,
only keeping the top fairly free and open.

The pear bears mostly on spurs which continue to branch and to bear
for a number of years, and in pruning it is important that these
spurs be not removed unless it is desired to thin the fruit. The
flowers are borne in umbel-like cymes (Fig. 2805), but in most kinds
only one fruit sets in a cluster. Pear trees are usually planted much
closer than apple trees. The customary distance is 18 to 20 feet.
Fig. 2812 shows an average east-American pear orchard. Fig. 2813 is a
picking scene.

Many of the varieties of pears are infertile with themselves: they
need the pollen of other varieties to cause them to set fruit freely.
Probably any variety will fertilize any other variety in case the two
bloom simultaneously. Such varieties as Kieffer and Bartlett are
usually classed as self-sterile kinds, but the degree of sterility
varies in different places and with different conditions. The safest
plan in the setting of a pear orchard is to plant not more than two
rows of one variety together, and to alternate with one or two rows
of another variety.

Good varieties of pears are numerous. The one most important variety
is the Bartlett (Fig. 2806), which was early introduced into the
United States from Europe, where it is known as the Bonchretien. At
present, the Kieffer probably holds second place. In the eastern
states, the Seckel (Fig. 2814) is a prominent variety, and is the
standard of quality. Other prominent varieties are Anjou (Fig. 2815),
Clairgeau, Hardy, Howell, Sheldon, and Diel. The list might be almost
indefinitely extended. In the Gulf region, the oriental hybrids alone
are successful, and the leaders are Kieffer, LeConte, Garber, and
Smith. The most notable pear of early American origin is undoubtedly
the Seckel, which originated near Philadelphia in the eighteenth
century. As late as 1880, the tree presented the appearance shown in
Fig. 2816, which appeared (in larger size) in the Gardener's Monthly.
In 1908, all that remained was a dead and decayed stump (Fig. 2817).
The season of the maturity of pears runs from midsummer, when it is
introduced by Summer Doyenne and (Manning) Elizabeth, to late winter,
when it is closed with such late winter varieties as Nelis (Winter
Nelis), Malines, and others. The winter pears are relatively little
known in the eastern states. As a rule, they come into bearing late
or are not very prolific; but there is no reason why they should not
be better known. Winter pears are kept as are winter apples, although
somewhat greater care is necessary. They should be stored in a
uniformly cool temperature. If allowed to hang too long on the tree,
they become over-ripe, and then if placed in an ordinarily warm
cellar, they do not keep more than one or two months.

Unlike most other fruits, all pears are greatly improved in quality
if they are ripened indoors. They should be picked as soon as they
have reached their full size and have begun to color, but before they
have become soft, and be placed in a dry and rather cool room. If the
wind is allowed to blow over them, they are likely to shrivel. If
kept too warm, they ripen too quickly and soon rot. The best quality
is secured when they are picked about two weeks in advance of their
normal ripening.

Pears are marketed much as are apples, although the barrel is little
used for the dessert varieties. For export, as well as for a good
home trade, the following sentences by George T. Powell are useful:
"The fruit should be gathered when it has reached its most perfect
development, but not allowed to come to its full maturity or
approximate ripening. This is the right condition of fruit when it is
to be shipped without refrigeration. With refrigeration, a little
fuller maturity may be allowed. Each specimen should be wrapped in
paper. A layer of excelsior should be placed on the bottom of the
box, which is marked to be opened; over this place a sheet of paper.
Pack the pears in single layers, covering each with paper and
excelsior until the box is filled, nailing cover securely under
considerable pressure. Boxes should hold thirty-six large pears, and
sixty of medium size. [Fig. 2818.] This is a refinement of even the
best packing for the common domestic trade. [Fig. 2819.]
Dwarf pears.

When worked on the quince root, the pear is easily grown as a dwarf.
The free stocks—those grown normally' on pear roots—are known in this
country as standards. The dwarf pear comes into bearing earlier, and,
since the trees are small, the fruit can be thinned and the trees
sprayed, and the fruit therefore should be of the highest quality.
Dwarf pear trees require more care than the ordinary standards,
however, and they should not be planted unless the cultivator
understands this fact and is willing to give the attention that they
need. Although the trees are by nature dwarf, since they are worked
on a smaller-growing species, they nevertheless tend to become half
standard if left to themselves. Therefore they must be very severely
headed-in every year. A dwarf pear tree should never reach a greater
height than 12 feet. To keep it down to this stature, from one-half
to two-thirds of the annual growth is removed late each winter. The
trees are often planted as close together as 10 feet each way, but
this is too close. With the ordinary broad-top pruning, which nearly
all American growers give, 1 rod apart each way is not too great. A
good dwarf pear tree is one in which the union with the quince stock
is very close to the ground. When the tree is planted, this union
should be 4 to 6 inches below the surface after the ground has
settled. This deep planting prevents the breaking of the union and
places the quince beyond the reach of borers. If planted deeper than
this, the pear cion may throw out roots of its own; in fact, it
sometimes does this if planted only 6 inches deep. This rooting of
the stock is no particular disadvantage, although the tree thereafter
tends to grow stronger and greater pruning is necessary. An expert
grower can pick out the trees which are rooted from the pear stock by
their more vigorous growth: if he desires to check this redundant
growth he may cut off the pear roots. It is the common opinion that
dwarf pear trees are short-lived. This may be true as regards the greater number of specimens which one sees about yards and on untilled areas, but a dwarf pear orchard on good well-drained ground, which is well-tilled and given regular pruning, will last a lifetime. Many varieties of pears do well when grafted on the quince root, but the one that is oftenest grown as a dwarf is the Angouleme (Duchesse d'Angouleme).

(Fig. 2820.) This is a large pear of irregular shape which sells well
because of its size, but it is of indifferent quality and may not be
good enough for a special or personal market. Other varieties popular
for dwarfs are Louise Bonne, Anjou, Clair- geau, Elizabeth, and, to a
less extent, Bartlett and Seckel. Even Kieffer is sometimes dwarfed
with satisfactory results. The growing of dwarf pears is a special
practice; in general it is not commercially profitable.

Writing on dwarf pears from a long experience in New York, L. T.
Yeomans says: "The soil best adapted to dwarf pears is a rich loam,
with a subsoil that requires thorough underdraining—a tile drain
within 5 feet of every tree in the orchard would be thorough
draining. The soil should be good strong corn or potato ground, and
kept in such condition of fertility from year to year, for which
purpose good well-composted barnyard manure has no equal, but may be
supplemented by other fertilizers—as ground bone and potash. Small
crops, as beans and potatoes, may be grown between the trees the
first few years after planting, but never should they be allowed in
the least to interfere with thorough tillage, or to rob the trees of
proper and desirable nourishment. The growth of the tree is of far
greater value than any farm crops which can be grown between the
trees. The soil should be thoroughly cultivated at least every ten to
fifteen days during the growing season till about August 15 to
September 1. It should cease in time that the wood may fully ripen.
Suitable cultivation can hardly be given with any crop on the ground,
except, possibly, when sufficient space is left without a crop next
to the trees.

The trees should be planted in rows 15 feet each way, or in rows 20
feet apart each way, with one tree in the center of each square. As
the trees become older, the entire ground should be given up to
frequent cultivation; and under no conditions should a dwarf pear
orchard be seeded to grass, unless to clover for the purpose of
plowing it under for fertilization.

Dwarf pears require thorough annual pruning, which may be done at any
convenient time after the fulling of the foliage and before the buds
become in the least swollen in the spring; but, where the cold is
severe, it is better not to prune till about the first to middle of
March. This pruning should begin with the first year, and be
continued annually during the life of the tree, cutting back all of
the growth to within four to eight buds, and thinning out all surplus
branches which will not be wanted for limbs to the tree, so that at
maturity the tree shall be open-headed, with opportunity for plenty
of air and sunshine all through the tree, without which superior
quality of fruit cannot be grown. The lower limbs should be within 20
to 24 inches of the ground. Trees when twenty to fifty years old
should not be more than 12 to 14 feet high, and the diameter of the
branches about 12 to 16 feet. [See Fig. 2821.] It is a very erroneous
impression that a dwarf pear orchard under proper conditions is
short-lived. There are in the United States orchards in vigorous
condition, and now producing annual crops, that are from thirty to
fifty years old.

Some of the advantages of dwarf over standard pears are: more trees
can be planted to the acre, they commence bearing much younger, the
fruit is not so liable to be blown off by early winds before
maturity, it is much more quickly and easily gathered than from high
trees, the fruit is larger and of better quality than that on
standards. All varieties do not succeed equally well as dwarfs,
because they do not all form an equally perfect union with the
quince. Angouleme is the leading and most profitable variety now
grown as dwarf, although many others succeed well."

Pears in the prairie region. '
On the northern plains, the culture of pears follows the general
lines of pear-growing in the Atlantic states, but there are some
radical points of difference. According to C. L. Watrous, "The
difficulties of pear-growing in the upper Mississippi Valley are many
and grievous. Above the 40th parallel and west of the Great Lakes,
nearly all efforts have been failures. The best successes have been
on high rather steep ridges and bluffs near watercourses, with
light-colored clay soils and northerly exposures. Pear trees are not
planted to the bottom or to the top, but in belts midway around the
slopes. Plums may be used lower down and cherries above. The ground
should be already set in clover or blue-grass. Small circles are
spaded out for the trees. These are cultivated with the hoe and
widened with the growth of the tree. Small trees branched very low
are best. The trees may be cut back the second year to within a few
inches of the ground. Only a very moderate annual growth is
desirable. Use no manure until the tree has borne several crops of
fruit, and then only with extreme care. Rich black soils, plenty of
manure, and clean culture are deadly to pear trees in this region.

The critical period is that of the first fruit crop. The deadly enemy
is blight, which is sure to appear then. The successful pear-grower
must not neglect his orchard a single day during the season of
blight, but watch for the enemy and cut out and burn every blighted
twig as soon as seen. Sultry damp weather in June is most critical.
Such varieties as Warner, Longworth, Vermont (Beauty), Koonce, and
Kieffer are said to succeed farther north and resist blight better
than any others. Under slightly more favorable conditions, Clairgeau,
Howell, Seckel, Tyson, Washington, and Flemish (Beauty) may be used.
The hardiest and blight-resistant varieties may be grown, and when in
bearing a branch or two grafted with a more delicate sort with
success."

Insects and diseases.

The insect enemies of the pear are numerous, but, with two or three
exceptions, are not very serious. The tree is attacked by borers,
although to a less extent than peaches and apples. These are kept in
check by digging them out once or twice a year as on other fruit
stocks. The fruit is attacked to some extent by the codlin- moth, but
the arsenical sprays keep this insect in check. Of late years the
psylla, attacking the growing parts, has been very damaging in parts
of the East, although it is irregular in its outbreaks. It can be
controlled by thorough work with a spray in winter and also when the
blossom-buds are expanding, at the former time by the use of "Black

Leaf 40" tobacco preparation or kerosene emulsion and similar
compounds, and at the latter period by lime-sulfur. If the rough bark
is removed in winter and burned, very many of the pests will be
destroyed. In some parts of the East the fruit is attacked by the
pear midge, a minute fly whose maggots work in the very young fruit.
Thorough cultivation will check this serious pest, but its complete
control often involves the destruction of all the young fruit on the
infested trees; the application of kainit to the soil in the second
half of June (1,000 to 2,000 pounds to the acre on sandy soils in New
Jersey) is said to kill the insect after it leaves the fruit to
undergo its transformations. Repeated shallow tillage in early summer
is a good protection.

The foliage and fruit of the pear are attacked by parasitic fungi,
which cause the leaves to drop and the fruit to become scabby. These
diseases are readily held in check by spraying with bordeaux mixture
or lime-sulfur. More than fifty years ago the White Doyenne pear was
the most popular variety for growing on the quince root, but because
of the pear scab it passed away. It was supposed that the disease was
due to uncongenial climate. Since the advent of the sprays, however,
it has been found that the White Doyenne can be grown as well as
ever. Flemish (Flemish Beauty) is also an example in point. Years ago
it was one of the most popular standard varieties, but of late years
it has been ittle grown because of the cracking of the fruit.

Pear-blight or fire-blight is the most serious disease of pear trees.
It is an American disease. It is caused by a microbe which enters
through the growing points (flowers and tips of shoots) and thrives
in soft or "succulent" parts. Gradually the micro-organism works down
the stems, killing the tissues and causing the leaves to die. In the
leaf-blight, which is a distinct disease, the leaves are more or less
spotted and they fall; in the pear-blight, the leaves turn black and
hang on the tree. The fire-blight also attacks apple trees,
particularly in the Plains region. It is probably aboriginal on
hawthorns and related plants. There is no perfect preventive of the
disease. Some varieties seem to be relatively immune, as, for
example, the Angouleme. It is now generally believed that trees are
more subject to the disease when they are making excessive growth;
therefore it is advised that tillage and the application of
stimulating manures be moderate. As soon as the disease appears, cut
out the affected parts, severing them some inches below the lowest
point of visible attack. Do not allow blighted branches to remain on
the tree over winter. Disinfect the wounds or stubs and the
implements with bichloride of mercury or other antiseptic. Destroy
hedgerows and thickets hi which are other trees on which the blight
is carried, as hawthorns, quinces, and diseased apple and pear trees.
It is probable that there is a connection with insects in the spread
of pear-blight.

Literature.

There are no recent American books on the pear. Two books have been
written on this fruit: Thos. W. Fields' "Pear Culture," New York,
1858; P. T. Quinn's "Pear Culture for Profit," New York, 1869. new
edition, 1883. There are bulletins from the United States Department
of Agriculture and some of the state experiment stations. Many years
ago the writer secured from the venerable T. T. Lyon (Vol. Ill, page
1585), an article, for publication, on the pear. This was published
in the "Cyclopedia of American Horticulture." The Editor is glad
again to place this article alongside the others in order to contrast
the viewpoints of two generations. Mr. Lyon's article, which is
excellent and cautious and characterized by beauty of style, is of
the type that we no longer see. The person who is familiar with
present-day points of view will discover that it lays the emphasis on
formal presentation, propagation, pruning, varieties, whereas little
or no attention is given to systems of tillage, pollination,
spraying, and commercial methods. The methods in pear-culture, and
the varieties, have probably changed less in the last fifteen to
twenty-five years than those of any other standard fruit; as a whole,
pear-culture is not extending to any marked degree; and the article
that follows is still timely.
L H B

The pear and its cultivation.

So far as cultivators generally are concerned, this fruit is less
important than its near relative, the apple, for the reason that,
while the two begin to ripen at nearly the same season, there are
few, if any, desirable varieties of pears in season later than
December (if we except a few austere ones, suitable only for culinary
purposes), while apples are abundant for four or five months longer.
Moreover, during its entire season, the pear is supplemented by the
mass of luscious, though perishable, summer and autumn fruits. The
liability of very many_ usually excellent varieties to be rendered
indifferent in quality by unfavorable seasons, neglect or unsuitable
soil, is also a serious detriment to the general popularity of this
fruit. The liability to the loss of the trees by blight, beyond
question detracts greatly from the value of the pear, especially for
commercial purposes; while it also exerts a discouraging influence
upon amateur planting. To the careful and discriminating amateur, as
well as to the man of wealth, with a fondness for fruit-culture
whether in person or by proxy, this fruit often assumes a prominence
over any, if not all, others.

Extent of cultivation.

Doubtless, for reasons heretofore stated, pear trees are but
sparingly planted by most persons. The fruit sent to market comes
largely from the plantations of specialists who. with
oils adapted to the purpose and the necessary knowledge of
varieties, have undertaken the business as a commercial enterprise.
In the climates of the seaboard, and, to a considerable extent, in
the region of the Great Lakes, the pear is exceptionally successful;
while away from the influence of large bodies of water, and
especially in the prairie regions of the Mississippi Valley, from
unsuitableness of climate or soil, or both combined, the trees are
liable to be either killed or seriously injured in winter, and hence
are short-lived and unprofitable.

Aspect.

Perhaps in no other important particular does the climate of eastern
and central North America differ more widely from that of the
pear-growing regions of Europe than in its liability to sudden and
extreme variations of temperature. Owing to this climatic pecularity,
aspect becomes an important consideration in the selection of a
location for a plantation of pear trees. As a means of avoiding the
full influence of exposure to the rays of the sun, during the severer
paroxysms of summer heat, while the trees are in actual growth, and
also to mitigate the liability to alternate freezing and thawing in
winter, a northerly or northeasterly slope is to be preferred ;
which, however, should be so gradual as not seriously to interfere
with the convenience of cultivation. As we approach the northern
limit of practicable pear-culture, however, a modification of this
rule of selection may be found desirable, since, with the shorter
growing season, a warmer exposure may prove necessary as a means of
hastening maturity.

Soils.

While the pear tree will pear, yield more or less satisfactory
results in a variety of soils, it is found to succeed most perfectly
in a strong loam, of moderate depth, overlying a porous subsoil.
Soils which are liable to be wet during any considerable portion of
the growing season are unfit for this purpose, unless deeply and
thoroughly underdrained; while even then they are quite liable not to
prove fully satisfactory. A few varieties are found to be moderately
successful on sandy soils, but for general planting such soils should
be avoided.

Manures.

The liability of the pear tree, in this climate, to the attacks of
blight is thought to be increased by excessive growth. It is,
therefore, desirable that the annual growth be completed, and ripened
at as early a date as practicable; and the more so since the
liability to blight apparently exists only while growth is in actual
progress. Stable and other nitrogenous manures should, for this
reason, be applied in moderate quantities, in autumn, after the
liability to excite renewed growth shall be past. Potash, lime, and
phosphorus, which enter more or less largely into the composition of
both tree and fruit, and which rarely exist in excess in the soil,
may be profitably applied in either autumn or spring. Salt may also
be profitably applied to the comparatively dry soils recommended for
the pear, but with care not to apply in excess. One or even two
quarts may be safely applied to each tree, before the commencement of
growth in the spring, if well distributed upon the surface over a
space of at least 6 or 8 feet in diameter, and left to be carried
gradually into the soil by dew and rain. It is believed to possess
little, if any, manurial value; but to act rather as a conservator of
moisture, and probably also as a repellent of insects. Coarse mulch
may be placed about the trees, covering the soil as far out as the
roots extend, for the purpose of keeping the earth cool, and also to
check evaporation from the soil; but this should not be done as a
substitute for cultivation; and the soil beneath the mulch should be
kept well pulverized.

Propagation.

(a) By seedlings: Seeds, when to be planted for the origination of
new varieties, should be selected from well-grown and fully matured
fruits, of such varieties as possess in a high degree the qualities
sought to be reproduced or improved, since a variety in which a
characteristic is strongly developed and persistently manifested is
the more likely to transmit such peculiarity to its offspring. Seeds
resulting from known or artificial cross-fertilization, and therefore
of known and selected parentage on both sides, offer increased
probability of valuable results. Seeds intended for the origination
of new varieties should be planted very thinly in strong, rich,
deeply prepared soil, in a single row, and covered with not more than
an inch of earth, so that the young plants shall have ample space for
development.

Seeds intended for the growing of stocks for nursery
purposes should be collected from varieties in which the seeds are
plump and well developed, as well as from healthy, vigorous trees.
American nurserymen obtain pear seeds mostly from Europe. Seeds
intended for nursery stocks are usually planted in broad, shallow
drills. In our American climate the foliage and unri- pened wood of
seedling pears is very liable to be attacked during midsummer by
leaf-blight or mildew, which prematurely arrests their growth. For
this reason European stocks are generally preferred by nurserymen.
This attack of mildew may often be partially or wholly avoided by
planting in virgin soil remote from other cultivated grounds. Pear
seedlings form a very long taproot during their first year, with few,
if any, side-roots. For this reason they are taken up preferably in
autumn, and the tap-roots shortened to 6 or 8 inches, when they may
be replanted in nursery rows, and earthed up, or otherwise protected
from heaving, or other injury during winter; or, preferably, they may
be heeled-in, in a frost-proof cellar, and planted in spring, to be
budded during the ensuing summer or left to become more fully
established for budding a year later.

Seedlings intended for fruiting are usually transplanted in rows,
about 8 feet apart each way, with the expectation that many will be
found worthless, and either removed or destroyed. Seedling pears
usually require to be fruited several years before their
characteristics become fully developed. This generally recognized
fact may be taken as a warning that the occasional effort to hasten
the puberty of a seedling by fruiting a cion from it upon a bearing
tree of different variety cannot be trusted to indicate the ultimate
character of the fruit of the yet incipient variety, since it is
impossible to foresee to what extent such transfer may interfere with
the occult formative processes through which its ultimate qualities
would have been developed.

(b) By budding: Seedlings of one or two years growth, intended for
standard trees, are usually planted from 6 to 10 inches apart in the
nursery row; for the reason that space, as well as cultivation, must
be economized to correspond with prices, although it is impossible to
grow trees of good form and properly branched of the size and age
demanded by most planters when thus closely planted. Trees thus
closely planted should be removed, or at least thinned, after having
made one year's growth from the bud; while trees intended to be grown
two or more years in the nursery row, and properly branched, should
be given twice or even three times the space mentioned.

The budding of pear stocks may be done during July and August if they
continue in a growing condition, but they are liable to be attacked
by mildew of the foliage, for which reason they must be closely
watched, and should the malady prove troublesome the budding must be
done as soon as properly matured buds can be obtained. Such stocks
as, for any cause, were left unbudded at budding time, together with
any in which buds shall have failed, may be grafted the following
spring; but this, as well as any and all grafting of the pear, mast
be done very early, before the earliest movement of the sap in
spring. In the spring, as soon as the swelling of the buds indicates
that the germs are alive, the stocks are cut back to force them into
growth. Often to insure the formation of straight, upright,
symmetrical trees, careful nursery-men leave 3 or 4 inches of the
stock above the insertion of the bud. to which the young shoots may
be tied, if it shall fail otherwise to take an upright direction.
Shoots may also be thus tied to prevent their being blown out, or
otherwise injured by the wind. These stubs should be cut back to the
bud when no longer needed for the purposes indicated. Such sprouts as
spring from the stock in consequence of the cutting back must be
removed from time to time to encourage the growth of the bud. This
should be done while they are yet tender and succulent and can,
therefore, be taken off without the use of a knife. This process must
be repeated as they reappear, unless it is rendered unnecessary by
the failure or loss of the bud.

Pruning.

Beyond that described under the head of budding, little pruning is
required during the first season, except to pinch in such side shoots
as threaten to rob the one intended to become the trunk of the future
tree. Early in the spring of the second year, all lateral shoots must
be wholly cut away, and since the pear tends strongly to renew its
growth from the terminal buds of the previous year, the shoot
intended to become the trunk of the future tree must be cut down to
the point at which the top is to commence, when the branches to form
the head will start from the buds nearest the top. The uppermost
shoot must, if needful, be confined in an upright position to
constitute the continuation of the trunk.

The habits of growth of varieties differ so widely that no inflexible
rule can be laid down to determine the height at which the top of a
pear tree should be commenced, unless it be that the heads of the
more spreading varieties should be started higher than those of a
more upright habit. The preferences of the larger number of
purchasers have begotten among nurserymen the practice of forming the
heads of all varieties at a height of 3 or 4 feet. This height is
open to the objection that, while not seriously faulty in the case of
such spreading varieties as Onondaga, Osband (Summer), or Flemish
(Beauty), it is essentially unsuited to such very upright growers as
Buffum, Sterling, Clapp (Favorite), and even Anjou. In this
particular, as in various others, the practice of nurserymen,
begotten by the preferences of the average of their customers, fails
to adapt itself to the needs of the more intelligent and considerate
orchardist, and to those of even smaller planters, who regard the
health and productiveness of their trees as of higher importance than
the possibly increased convenience of cultivation.

A proper system of primary branches, upon which to grow a permanent
head, should be provided from the growth of the second season.
Probably the most satisfactory provision for this purpose consists of
a central shoot, with from three to five laterals diverging from the
trunk at its base. A head should, in no case, be grown upon two
shoots, forming a crotch, since this will be very liable to split and
thus ruin the tree. A few varieties, of which Rostiezer is a notable
example, have the habit of producing but few branches, and also of
making successive annual growths, mainly from the terminal buds of
the previous year, thus forming a too open or straggling head. Such
tendency is best overcome by cutting back the branches in spring, the
effect being to increase their number, though at the expense of
vigor.

After the primary branches have been developed, and the growth of the
third year is in progress, comparatively little pruning will be found
necessary beyond the occasional cutting away of a straggling or
crossing branch, although there is a class of varieties, of which
Summer Doyenne and Winter Nelis are types, which, especially when
growing vigorously, incline to twist and straggle so awkwardly that
the branches must frequently be tied in position to insure the
formation of a satisfactory head.

Prior to the third or fourth year, all pruning must necessarily have
for its object the direction and encouragement of wood-growth, for
which purpose it is most effective when performed in late winter or
early spring, while the trees are yet dormant.

The fact should not be forgotten that pruning, in proportion to its
extent or severity, may be a tax upon the vigor and health of the
tree, and, therefore, to be practised as sparingly as possible. Such
necessity may be to a considerable extent avoided if the orchardist,

with a well-defined ideal in mind of a tree such as he desires to
produce, will, during the growing season, pass frequently through his
plantation and pinch out, while yet small and succulent, all growths
not needed for his purpose, at the same time "stopping" such of the
reserved ones as may be too far outgrowing their fellows. With the
efficient performance of this process while the framework of the top
is being developed, very little pruning will remain to be done on the
arrival of spring, while nearly the entire growth, which would
otherwise have been pruned away in spring, will have been employed in
developing the reserved branches.

While the cutting away of an occasional small branch may be done at
almost any time, large branches should be removed only in case of
actual necessity, and at a period early enough to permit the thorough
drying and hardening of the cut surface prior to the movement of the
sap in spring, as a means of preventing bleeding and consequent
decay.

Summer pruning tends to check rather than encourage wood-growth, and
since it acts to a greater or less extent as an obstruction to the
circulation, it also tends, as does the permanent bending of the
branches and the hardening of the tissues, to hasten the formation of
fruit-buds and the production of fruit.

The pear may be successfully grafted upon the white thorn, the
mountain-ash, and the apple, and such grafts have occasionally proved
more or less productive for a time, but in such cases the union
between stock and cion is generally, if not always, imperfect; and
such uncongenial combinations are therefore usually shortlived. The
quince is the only dissimilar stock upon which the pear is
extensively grown. Quince stocks for this purpose are largely
imported from France. The Angers quince is generally preferred for
this purpose. These stocks are usually planted in nursery rows at the
age of two years, to be budded during the following summer, in the
same manner as pear stocks. When intended for dwarf trees, nurserymen
usually cut them back after one year's growth from the bud to the
nearly uniform height of 18 inches, although with the more
upright-growing varieties it is by many deemed preferable to branch
them even 6 or 8 inches lower. Aside from the height at which they
should be branched, the pruning and management should be identical
with that prescribed for standards, with the important exception that
when planted out for fruiting the junction between the quince and the
pear should be 3 or 4 inches below the surface to encourage the
formation of roots from the pear. Trees thus planted will begin to
bear while yet growing solely from the quince stock, and will
continue to produce fruit after rooting from the pear, thus affording
the early fruiting of the dwarf, as well as the permanency of the
standard.

Not more than a specimen or two should be permitted to grow upon a
dwarf the first and second years after planting. Such trees, if left
to fruit freely, will almost certainly be ruined from overbearing
before they are fully established. Many varieties when grown as
dwarfs can never be safely allowed to mature more than a small
portion of the fruit which they will naturally set.

While several varieties are found to be especially successful when
grown upon the quince, most others prove only moderately so,
requiring careful and expert management to insure satisfactory
results. A few others,of which Bosc may be named as a prominent case,
are obstinately unsuccessful upon the quince, and even when
double-worked upon a dwarf of a congenial variety, their success
appears to be by no means assured.

Dwarf trees trained as hereinbefore specified are commonly known as
half-standards. Other and more elaborate forms are known as pyramids,
cordons, and the like, descriptions of which are not deemed necessary
here.

Choice of trees.

Aside from the selection of the location for an orchard, the first
important particular is the selection of the trees, leaving the
choice of varieties for subsequent consideration. Trees of one year's
growth from the bud are to be preferred for the following reasons:

(1) Fewer roots need be injured or lost in the process of lifting and
replanting, for which reason the tree may be expected the more
promptly to recover from the shock of removal. (2) The single
season's growth may be cut back and the top commenced to suit the
preferences of the planter. (3) The top will present little or no
obstacle to the force of the wind until the roots shall have gained
such hold upon the soil that there will remain little liability to
displacement from this cause. (4) The risk of failure from removal is
greatly diminished, while the more prompt recovery and increased rate
of growth of the trees in the more open orchard rows may be expected
to compensate fully for one or two years more of growth in crowded
nursery rows. (5) Something will also be saved in the cost of the
trees and in the expense of transportation, as well as in the labor
of planting.

If older or high-branched trees are not objected to, it will usually
be found that they are but imperfectly branched from having been
grown in crowded rows.

Preparation of the soil.

When the late John A. Warder was asked how large the holes should be
dug for planting orchard trees, he replied, "Of the full size of the
orchard;" and it may also be remarked that when the ground for an
orchard has been well tilled and fertilized to a depth at least equal
to that at which trees are to be planted, there is no longer occasion
for holes larger than shall be necessary to receive the roots in
their proper position. If the subsoil be not freely pervious to
water, the ground must be deeply and thoroughly underdrained, and in
no case should the hole in which a tree is to be planted be sunk into
a subsoil so impervious as to retain water beneath or about its
roots. If such retentive subsoil occurs too near the surface and is
not considered suitable to be mixed with the surface soil, it should
be thoroughly disintegrated to the requisite depth by means of a
subsoil plow or other equivalent device. In all nearly level
retentive soils, it will be found advantageous to "back- furrow" a
land along the line of each row in the direction of the surface
drainage, so that when the trees have been planted the drainage will
be away from them.

Laying out, staking, and planting.

The most economical mode of laying out and planting an orchard, so
far as space is concerned, is doubtless that commonly, but
erroneously, designated as quincunx, and more correctly as hexagonal;
but whether planted thus, or in rectangles, the work may be most
rapidly and accurately done by planting a stake where each tree is to
stand, and using what is known as a planting-board, consisting of a
strip of board 6 or 7 feet long, with a hole for a stake near each
end, and a notch or slot intermediate and in line between them to
receive the stake, and to support the tree while the earth is being
carefully filled in, under, among, and above its roots.

The following are good general rules to be observed
in the digging, handling, preparing, and planting of trees:

1. In digging trees, aim to secure as many of the main fibrous roots
as possible.

2. Expose the roots as little as possible to the drying influence of
sun and wind.

3. Prepare the roots for planting by cutting away the bruised and
broken portions.

4. If the roots have been essentially shortened in lifting, cut away
the superfluous branches and also cut back such as are to remain till
a proper balance of root and top is secured.

5. In heavy retentive soil, plant the tree very little if any deeper
than it stood in the nursery, and, in addition, raise a slight mound
about the trunk to avoid the occurrence of standing water at that
point.

6. In strong but dry soil, a tree may be planted an inch or two
deeper than it stood in the nursery.

7. In light sand, with dry subsoil, a tree should be planted 3 or
even 4 inches deeper than it stood in the nursery.

8. Dig the hole in which a tree is to be planted deep enough to
receive 2 or 3 inches of fine soil, before putting the tree in place,
making it large enough to allow the roots to be spread out in their
natural position.

9. See that good, friable surface soil is well filled in beneath,
among, and over the roots.

10. Should the soil be dry, with no immediate prospect of rain, it
will be well after nearly filling the hole with earth, to apply a
pail of water, and, after it shall have settled away, to fill up the
hole with earth and tramp it down firmly. Staking will rarely be
found necessary, except, possibly, in the case of trees old enough to
have been already branched, but such stake must be watched and the
tree protected against injury by rubbing against it.

Subsequent cultivation.

(a) Newly planted trees: Ground occupied by young trees must be kept
well cultivated during the spring and early summer. If hoed crops are
planted, larger quantities of manure will be required; but, in either
case, cultivation should cease as early as the beginning of August in
order to hasten the ripening of the young wood. This process should
be continued during at least five or six years, after which green
crops may be grown and plowed under as a means, in part, of
maintaining the fertility of the soil.

(b) Mulching: Especially during the first few years after planting,
in case of hot dry weather during the growing season, mulch may be
applied to check evaporation from the soil and to keep it cool, but
it should not be permitted to take the place of cultivation. The soil
should be well pulverized before applying it.

(c) Manuring: As stated previously, manures should be applied
sparingly but regularly, preferably in late autumn, and should be
plowed under, or otherwise mixed with the soil at that time or in the
early spring, as a means of promoting early growth and the thorough
ripening of the wood in advance of severe cold. Thorough ma-turing of
the wood should also be assisted,as already said, by ceasing
cultivation the early part of August.

Gathering and ripening the fruit.

All selected pears, whether intended for the market or for use at
home, should be carefully hand-picked.

(a) Gathering summer and autumn pears: With very few exceptions all
pears acquire a higher quality if gathered before they are fully
ripe. The generally accepted rule is to gather the crop when an
occasionally full-grown wormy specimen is ripe, or when there is a
perceptible change in the color of the maturer specimens, or when the
stem parts readily from the branch if the fruit is slightly lifted.

(b) Ripening summer and winter pears: When gathered, the fruit should
be placed in a cool room devoted to the purpose, and spread upon
shelves, or in lack of a suitable room they may be placed in shallow
boxes or drawers, where in due time they will acquire their full
color and flavor. Since this fruit parts with moisture quite freely,
it, and especially the later ripening varieties, should be protected
from a drying atmosphere, particularly from drafts of air, which will
cause the fruit to shrivel and become tough and leathery. It is also
true of at least very many varieties that even if blown off or
gathered when but two-thirds grown, the fruit if put away as already
described will usually acquire a satisfactory quality. Fruits thus
gathered and ripened are found to have less tendency to decay rapidly
at the core.

(c) Gathering and ripening of winter dessert pears: These should
remain upon the tree as long as practicable without danger from
frost. When gathered, they should be placed in a cool frost-proof
room, and it will be well also to wrap each separately in soft paper.

Some varieties are found to ripen perfectly without further
attention, but the quality .of most kinds will be much improved if
they are brought into a temperature of 60° or 70° a fortnight before
their usual season of maturity.

(d) Winter cooking pears: These should be gathered and put away in
close packages in a cool, frost-proof room, in the same manner as
russet apples, like which they will shrivel, and become tough and
leathery if left exposed to the air. They may remain in this
condition until needed for use.

Packing and marketing.

In America, pears are generally packed for market directly from the
tree, without awaiting the process of ripening. Barrels are largely
used as packages, although this fruit is frequently put up in
half-barrels and sometimes in bushel, peck, and even in half-peck
baskets.

American growers rarely ripen their fruit before marketing it. This,
if done at all, is more generally accomplished by the dealer,
doubtless with decided profit, since in the larger cities fully $50
have been known to be paid for a single barrel of selected fruit, and
yet the same fruit ripened and offered in quantities to suit
customers has been sold at two or three times the original cost. The
marketing of unripened pears is obviously unprofitable so far as the
producer is concerned.

In Europe, the choicest fruits are carefully selected and
house-ripened. When approaching their best condition the fruits are
separately wrapped in soft paper, and are then put up in packages of
perhaps one or two dozens, and sent so as to appear upon the market
when in the best possible condition. Such fruits command prices quite
in excess of what they would have realized had they been offered in
an immature condition.

Varieties.

Since the popular and desirable varieties of pears may be found fully
described in standard pomological works, such descriptions here are
not deemed necessary. Among the very numerous varieties of pears
described in such works there are doubtless many possessing high
quality and other valuable characteristics, which, for some
unexplained reason, have failed to attract the attention of growers.
Since varieties vary in their season of ripening with change of
latitude, and often, to some extent, with change of location, even in
the same latitude, the designation of such season becomes a matter of
more or less difficulty. In the following lists the season given will
be approximately that between parallels 42 and 43 of north latitude.

(a) Amateur pears: It is as true of the pear as of most other species
of fruits that very many varieties are of small size, unattractive
appearance, or of such delicate texture when ripe as to disqualify
them for the market, although they may possess, in an eminent degree,
the peculiar characteristics which render them desirable, and to
persons of cultivated taste, indispensable for the supply of the
family. Such are termed amateur pears.

The following is a list of a few of the mosf popular of these,
arranged approximately in the order of maturity:

Name. Season. Remarks
Madeleine m. e. July Earliest good pear.
Summer Doyenne e. July.
Bloodgood e. July. m. Aug.
Giffard m. Aug Excellent, but very perishable.
Dearborn m. e. Aug.
Rostieier m. Aug. m. Sept.
Elizabeth e. Aug.
Brandy wine e. Aug. b. Sept.
Tyson e. Aug. b. Sept.. A tardy bearer.
Stevens (Genesee) b. Sept Rots soon at the core.
Clapp b. m. Sept Rots soon at the core.
Washington m. Sept.
(Belle) Lucrative m. e. Sept.
Bose. e. Sept. Oct.
White Doyenne e. Sept. Nov Liable to crack badly.
Seckel Oct.
Sarah Oct.
Anjou Oct. Nov.
Gray Doyenne m. Oct. Nov.
Reeder Nov.
Heyst (Emile d'Heyst) .Nov. Dec.
Mount Vernon Nov. Dec.
Dana Hovey Nov. Jan.
Langelier Nov. Feb.
Germain Nov. March.
Lawrence Dec
Winter Nelis Dec, Jan.
Easter Jan. March.

*e, early; m, middle; b, beginning.

(b) Culinary pears: Very few dessert pears are found to be
satisfactory for culinary uses, since they too generally lose at
least a portion of their flavor and aroma in the process of cooking.
There are, however, several varieties of high, austere character
which prove adapted to this purpose, among which are the following:

Name Season Remarks
Vicar Nov. Jan Occasionaly good enough for dessert.
(Black) Worcester Nov. Feb.
Catillac Nov. March.
Pound Dec. Feb.

(c) Market pears: The markets demand varieties of attractive
appearance, of at least medium size and of fine texture. To the
grower, productiveness and vigor of tree are also of primary
importance. If possessing the foregoing characteristics, a variety
may prove at least temporarily popular, even though of comparatively
low quality. The following varieties, some of which may also be found
in the amateur list, are all more or less popular as market fruits:

Name. Season. Remarks.
Tyson e. Aug. b. Sept. Excellent, but a tardy bearer.
sterling e. Aug. m. Sept.. Productive, and exceedingly beautiful.
Clapp b. m. Sept. Rots soon at the core.
Bartlett b. e. Sept. Leading market pear.
Souvenir du)Congress.b. e. Sept. Sometimes very large.
Buffum m. Sept. Variable in quality.
Howell m. Sept. Oct.
Flemish (Beauty) m. e. Sept. Rots soon at the core.
Bose e. Sept. Oct. Excellent for all purposes.
Boussock e. Sept. Oct.
Louis Bonne e. Sept. Oct.. . Grown only as a dwarf.
Onondaga e. Sept. Nov.
Superfin Oct.
Sheldon Oct Is russeted and dull in color.
Rutter Oct. Nov.
Anjou Oct. Nov.
Kieffer Oct. Nov Not valuable north of 43 degrees.
LeConte Oct. Nov Succeeds best at the extreme South.
Angouleme Oct. Nov Grown only on quince stocks.
Diel Oct. Dec
Clairgeau Oct. Jan.
Columbia Nov. Jan.
McLaughlin Nov. Jan.
Lawrence Dec.
Malines Jan. Feb.

Relative desirableness of dwarfs.

There arc a few varieties, among which Louise Bonne and Angouleme may
be especially mentioned, which on free (pear) stocks are either tardy
bearers or require to be fruited several years before developing
their ultimate qualities, but which succeed unusually well upon the
quince. These, especially the Angouleme, are valued as market
varieties when grown as dwarfs.

Angouleme, and perhaps some other varieties as dwarfs, occasionally
bloom so profusely as apparently to prove unable to develop the
fruit, which in consequence proves abortive. The natural and obvious
remedy in such case is disbudding, or its equivalent, cutting back
the fruit-bearing shoots before growth is commenced.

The fact that very many varieties are not permanently successful when
grown upon the quince is doubtless partially, if not in many cases
even wholly, to their increased tendency to early and excessive
productiveness when grown upon that stock, which, owing to the very
common unwillingness of the grower to remove the excess of fruit, is
allowed to consume the material needed for wood-growth, and thus to
occasion exhaustion before the tree has gained a thorough hold upon
the soil.

If, with any variety capable of forming a satisfactory union with the
quince, and with the tree planted in the manner heretofore described,
the entire crop of bloom or incipient fruit of the first one, two, or
even three years (dependent upon the vigor of the tree) were removed,
and if subsequent crops were carefully and thoroughly thinned, it is
at least highly probable that permanent health and longevity would
prove nearly or quite as general with dwarfs as with standards, thus
permitting the more extensive growth of the pear in greater variety
in small or amateur plantations and in limited grounds than is
practicable with the use of standards.
T. T. Lyon.

The pear in the South.

Throughout the whole South the average production of pears to the
tree is less than one-half bushel. Virginia and Kentucky have many
pear trees in comparison with the other southern states, but should
hardly be considered with the remainder of the South, 'as their pears
are produced mainly on the northern borders of the states. Texas, on
account of its area, has more pear trees than any other southern
state; and El Paso County, the most western county, produces over
2,000 bushels. Conditions existing in this region are not at all
comparable with the other pear sections in the South.

It can hardly be said that pears are well adapted to southern
conditions, although in certain sections, particularly in the
mountains, it is possible to produce fruits of good quality; but on
account of the blight the industry has never attained importance. At
one time, the late P. J. Berckmans, of Augusta, Georgia, had 600
different pears under test in his nursery, 500 of them being named
varieties. Berckmans says that of the 600, those of any worth in the
South would not exceed twelve in number, and that the great
commercial varieties were the LeConte, Garber, and Kieffer, although
Bulletin No. 126 of the Bureau of Plant Industry shows seventy-seven
varieties of pears that have originated in the thirteen southern
states.

The history of the southern pear industry begins with the
introduction of the LeConte into Thomasville, Georgia, in the early
seventies of the last century by L. L. Varnadoe. The original cutting
carried into Thomas County came from Liberty County, Georgia. This
pear was planted extensively around Thomasville, being taken from
there into northern Florida, southern Alabama, Mississippi,
Louisiana, and Texas. The propagation was mainly by cuttings, and in
the early days of the industry $1 apiece was often paid for trees. At one time it was conservatively stated that there were at least 200,000 trees in Thomas County. Great prices were received for the product, the
growers in those days netting from $3 to $7 a barrel. There are
reports from H. H.Sanford, one of the early growers of this fruit, of

LeConte trees producing thirty bushela or more. The growing of this
pear, like many other horticultural industries in the South, was
along extensive rather than intensive lines. The growers thought that
they did not need to till or to fertilize their lands and that they
could plant these wonderful trees and reap a harvest of dollars, and
for a time it seemed as if this were so; then the blight appeared.
The "die- back,"as it was originally called, began, and between 1890
and 1895 the industry was in a fair way to succumb. No systematic
efforts were made to combat this disease, except by introduction of
the Kieffer, which was considered at that time resistant, and which
was largely planted in the pear sections of the South.

Because of the blight and lack of care, with no systematized methods
of marketing, the pear industry of the southern states fell to a low
ebb. For the past several years no commercial orchards have been set,
and a great number of the trees that were planted in this early
period are either dead or cut down; therefore the production of the
hybrid pears in the South is not only at a standstill, but is at this
time declining.

The management of these orchards, even while the industry was at its
height, was very crude. It is reported on good authority that 95 per
cent of the pear plantings in the southern pear sections were most
seriously neglected. Some orchards were cropped, to the detriment of
the land; others so badly neglected that young pine trees contended
with the pears for space; consequently the fruits were not of the
best quality. The growers who followed approved methods of tillage
and fertilizing received a serious set-back when the blight appeared,
as these plantings seemed to be more susceptible to this disease. In
time a balance was reached, and it is now considered good practice to
run the orchards in sod and every third year to give a light plowing,
the application of fertilizers being determined by the growth of the
tree. Spraying was little practised in the older orchards. The
growers who are still producing pears now find the use of a
spray-pump advisable. Harvesting during the height of the pear
industry in south Georgia was aptly described by the Thomasville
"Times Enterprise:" "The annual slaughter of the LeConte pears has
commenced. The trees are full of little gamins, picking a few,
flailing some and shaking off the remainder. All—good, bad, and
bruised—are dumped into barrels and rushed to market." It is
unfortunately true that many of these fruits were gathered in this
way. There were growers who hand- picked their product, carefully
packing it into ventilated barrels. These, however, were the smaller
number. There is an instance on record of a gentleman having sold
three hundred and odd dollars worth of pears from a small orchard, on
which he had expended $5 since the last harvest. Most of the pears
were shipped in barrels, though some were shipped in bulk. The
distribution is still poor, and for the past few years the profits
from the remaining trees have not been sufficient to warrant further
planting.

At present, the South as a whole cannot be considered as a
pear-producing section. There are still quite a number of pear trees
around the homes. These are rapidly disappearing, due to the blight
and the lack of care. The old orchards along the Atlantic and the
Gulf are rapidly dying with blight. The hybrid pears, LeConte,
Kieffer, and Garber, do remarkably well in this part of the country;
but the pear industry will never thrive as it did once until there is
a systematic fight made upon the blight. Besides this disease, the
pears are subject to bitter-rot, brown-rot and crown- gall, as well
as the codlin-moth and the San José scale; but of course these
insects and diseases can be easily controlled by spraying.

In the catalogue of fruits appended to the Proceedings of the
Thirty-Ninth Annual Session of the Georgia State Horticultural
Society is to be found this remark concerning pears: "Owing to the
prevalence of the pear blight, the commercial production of pears is
an uncertain and hazardous industry. Until it is demonstrated that
pear-blight can be successfully controlled, it is useless to
recommend the planting of pears in commercial quantities. So far as
is known, the Kieffer pear is the most resistant to the pear-blight
of the commercial varieties." This report of the Georgia State
Horticultural Society can be taken as a general recommendation for
practically all of the South, except for particularly isolated and
special places.

The pear in California.

Visitors at the old California missions during the early part of the
last century noted many thrifty seedling pear trees in the mission
gardens. Many of these trees survived the neglect which came upon the
mission properties after their secularization, and were in thrifty
growth and bearing at the time of the American occupation. The first
pears sold in San Francisco and in the mines in 1849-1850 were
gathered from the old mission trees, and some of these old trees
grafted over gave the first California product of the European and

American varieties of more than half a century ago. From this
beginning the growth of pears increased until the commercial product
of 1914 included the following: 2,725 carloads sent overland to
eastern and foreign markets (about the same as for the five years
preceding); 2,000,000 pounds dried pears shipped to the same
destination (a decreasing product because of the increasing demand
for shipping fresh and canning);805,740 cases of canned pears, mostly
Bartletts—a product which is rapidly increasing. There are about
2,000,000 pear trees in California orchards. The decade 1905-1915 was
a sensational period in California pear- growing because of the
appearance of the pear-blight about 1902. It made such rapid progress
that in 19O4 practically all the pear trees in one district were
seriously attacked and largely destroyed. Control measures were
provided by state appropriation in 1905 and continued several years,
and it was demonstrated that the disease can be held in check and
profitability of trees continued by cutting out all blighted parts
from twig to root—disinfecting between cuts all tools used in the
work. This demonstration, coupled with an apparent lessening of the
virulence of the disease, restored confidence among growers and
resulted in largely increased new planting in 1914—1915.

It is a most interesting fact that a single variety furnishes a very
great part, perhaps even as much as four-fifths, of the pear products
of the state, and that is the Bartlett. Whatever it may lack in high
quality is more than compensated for by its commercial
serviceability. It is handsome and of good size, endures long
carriage, cans well and dries well. and is of sufficiently good
quality to please consumers: in fact the California-grown Bartlett is
said to be better than the same variety grown in the Atlantic states
and in the west of Europe. This is not, however, the chief reason why
the Bartlett so largely preponderates in California. The ruling
condition is found in the fact that owing to the marked differences
in localities not widely distant and yet differing in elevation, in
exposure to coast influences and away from them, and other local
causes, the Bartlett has a very long ripening season, and valley,
coast, and mountain Bartletts follow each other through nearly three
months and thus make succession of different varieties during this
period unnecessary. There is, however, at present a greater
disposition than heretofore to extend the season by growing other
varieties, but they are selected for resemblance to the Bartlett
type. Clapp Favorite is sold as an "Early Bartlett," and a Winter
Bartlett, an Oregon seedling, has been planted to carry the same
style of pear as late as possible. Still some progress is being made
in extending the California list of popular pears and some of local
and of distant origin will probably achieve prominence, especially in
the shipments to distant markets.

California pears are grown on pear-seedling roots (especially of the
Japanese pear because of less liability to blight in the root), very
little recourse being had to rooted cuttings or to dwarfing stocks. A
dwarf pear tree is almost a curiosity. The heavier loams and even
clays are sometimes planted with pear trees, not because they are
best for pears but because other fruits do worse than they. To plant
fully the area intended for fruit, pears will go on the intrusions of
heavy or too moist soils, while the freer soil will be given to other
fruits. Still the chief product of pears is from the best loams
California affords, and the profits from the tree warrant the use of
such land. Pear trees are regularly pruned to a low vase form, but
seldom opened in the center, the interior being used for bearing
wood, and foliage enough retained partially to shade the fruit. The
fruit is thinned to favor size and to relieve the tree from
overbearing. Irrigation is employed in some parts of the state. The
varieties chiefly grown are the following: Bartlett, Winter Nelis,
Easter, Comnice, Glout Morceau, Hardy, P. Barry (a California
seedling), Seckel, Lawson (Comet), Winter Bartlett, Wilder.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Species==
Major recognized taxa{{wp}}
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Pyrus amygdaliformis]]'' – Almond-leafed Pear
*''[[Pyrus armeniacifolia]]''
*''[[Pyrus betulifolia]]''
*''[[Pyrus boissieriana]]''
*''[[Pyrus ×bretschneideri]]'' - Chinese white pear; also classified as a subspecies of ''Pyrus pyrifolia''
*''[[Callery Pear|Pyrus calleryana]]'' – Callery Pear
*''[[European Pear|Pyrus communis]]'' – European Pear
*''Pyrus communis '' subsp. ''caucasica''
*''Pyrus communis'' subsp. ''pyraster'' - Wild European Pear
*''[[Pyrus cordata]]'' – Plymouth Pear
*''[[Pyrus cossonii]]'' – Algerian Pear
*''[[Pyrus dimorphophylla]]''
*''[[Pyrus elaeagrifolia]]'' – Oleaster-leafed Pear 
*''[[Pyrus fauriei]]''
*''[[Pyrus gharbiana]]''
*''[[Pyrus glabra]]''
*''Pyrus hondoensis''
*''[[Pyrus koehnei]]'' - Evergreen pear of southern China and Taiwan
*''[[Pyrus korshinskyi]]''
*''[[Pyrus mamorensis]]''
*''[[Pyrus nivalis]]'' – Snow Pear
*''[[Pyrus pashia]]'' – Afghan Pear
*''[[Pyrus ×phaeocarpa]]''
*''[[Pyrus pseudopashia]]''
*''[[Nashi Pear|Pyrus pyrifolia]]'' – Nashi Pear, Sha Li
*''[[Pyrus regelii]]''
*''[[Pyrus salicifolia]]'' – Willow-leafed Pear
*''[[Pyrus ×serrulata]]''
*''[[Pyrus ×sinkiangensis]]'' - thought to be an interspecific hybrid between ''P. ''×''bretschneideri'', ''Pyrus ussuriensis'' and ''Pyrus communis''
*''[[Pyrus syriaca]]''
*''[[Pyrus ussuriensis]]'' – Siberian Pear, Chinese fragrant pear
*''[[Pyrus xerophila]]''
|}

[Note: Species names preceded by "×" indicate an interspecific hybrid species.]

==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
Image:Bradford 9288.JPG|[[Callery Pear]]s in flower
</gallery>

==See also==
*Alligator Pear ([[Persea gratissima]])
*Avocado Pear ([[Persea gratissima]])
*Balsam Pear ([[Momordica Charantia]])
*Garlic Pear ([[Crataeva gymandra]])
*Prickly Pear ([[Opuntia]])

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
__NOTOC__

Plum

2015-03-05T01:52:38Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Prunus
|common_name=Plum
|habit=tree
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=deciduous, flowers, edible, fruit, bees
|flower_season=early spring, mid spring
|flowers=white, single
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=2
|max_zone=9.5
|image=Plum on tree02.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Plums
}}
A '''plum''' or '''gage''' is a [[drupe|stone fruit]] [[tree]] in the genus ''[[Prunus]]'', subgenus ''Prunus''. The subgenus is distinguished from other subgenera ([[peach]]es, [[cherry|cherries]], [[bird cherry (subgenus)|bird cherries]], etc) in the shoots having a terminal bud and the side buds solitary (not clustered), the flowers being grouped 1-5 together on short stems, and the fruit having a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone.

Plums come in a wide variety of colours and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin colour.

==Cultivation==
When it flowers in the early spring, a plum tree will be covered in [[blossom]], and in a good year approximately 50% of the flowers will be pollinated and become plums. Flowering starts after 80 [[growing degree day]]s.

If the weather is too dry the plums will not develop past a certain stage, but will fall from the tree while still tiny green buds, and if it is unseasonably wet or if the plums are not harvested as soon as they are ripe, the fruit may develop a fungal condition called [[brown rot]]. Brown rot is not toxic, and very small affected areas can be cut out of the fruit, but unless the rot is caught immediately the fruit will no longer be edible. Plum is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] including [[November Moth]], [[Willow Beauty]] and [[Short-cloaked Moth]].

==Varieties==
[[Image:Plums.jpg|thumb|250px|Plums]]
Plum [[cultivar]]s in use today include:
* [[Damson]], or [[Damask Plum]]
* [[Greengage]], or greengage plum (firm, green flesh and skin even when ripe)
* [[Mirabelle Plum|Mirabelle]] (a dark yellow plum predominantly grown in northeast [[France]])
* Satsuma plum (firm red flesh with a red skin)
* Golden or yellowgage plum (like the greengage, but yellow)

The subgenus is divided into three sections:
*Sect. ''Prunus'' ('''[[Old World]] plums'''). Leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers 1-3 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed.
**''[[Cherry plum|P. cerasifera]]'' (cherry plum)
**''Prunus cocomilia''
**''Prunus consociiflora"
**''[[Prunus domestica|P. domestica]]'' (species of most "plums" and "[[prune]]s" sold as such)
**''[[Prunus insititia|P. insititia]]''
**''[[Prunus salicina|P. salicina]]'' (Japanese plum)
**''[[Prunus simonii|P. simonii]]''
**''[[Blackthorn|P. spinosa]]'' (blackthorn or sloe)
*Sect. ''Prunocerasus'' ('''[[New World]] plums'''). Leaves in bud folded inwards; flowers 3-5 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed.
**''[[Prunus alleghaniensis|P. alleghaniensis]]''
**''[[Prunus americana|P. americana]]''
**''[[Prunus angustifolia|P. angustifolia]]''
**''[[Prunus hortulana|P. hortulana]]''
**''[[Prunus maritima|P. maritima]]'' (beach plum)
**''[[Prunus mexicana|P. mexicana]]''
**''[[Prunus nigra|P. nigra]]''
**''[[Prunus orthosepala|P. orthosepala]]''
**''[[Prunus subcordata|P. subcordata]]'' (Klamath, Oregon, or Sierra plum)
*Sect. ''Armeniaca'' ('''Apricots'''). Leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers very short-stalked; fruit velvety. Treated as a distinct subgenus by some authors.
**''[[Apricot|P. armeniaca]]'' (apricot)
**''[[Prunus brigantina|P. brigantina]]''
**''[[Ume|P. mume]]'' (ume)
**''[[Prunus sibirica|P. sibirica]]''

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Plums on tree.jpg|''Prunus domestica''
Image:Red Plums on tree.jpg|''Prunus domestica''
Image:Bluebyrd plum.jpg|Bluebyrd plum
Image:Plum2web.jpg|Plum (variety Tucker) - watercolor 1894
Image:Plum1web.jpg|Plum (variety Pacific Prune) - watercolor 1893
Image:Plum blossoming.jpg
Image:Plum blossoms.jpg
Image:PlumBlossom.JPG|Plum blossoms
Image:Plum flowers.jpg|Plum blossom
Image:Shiny plum.jpg
Image:Plum tree.jpg
Image:Plums in basket.jpg
Image:Plums in tree.jpg
Image:Plums early morning.jpg
Image:Flor del ciruelo.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==See also==
*[[Fruit trees]]
*[[Fruit tree forms]]
*[[Fruit tree propagation]]
*[[Pruning fruit trees]]
*[[Pluot]]
*[[Prune (fruit)]]
*[[Dietary Fiber]]

==External links==
*{{wplink}}

__NOTOC__

{{Inc|

Plum. The tree and fruit of many species of Prunus. A few kinds are grown for the ornamental flowers and others for colored or variegated foliage. Prunes are cured dried plums.
It is probably more difficult to give specific practical advice for the management of the plum than for any other common fruit, for the reason that it represents
several distinct species which are not equally adapted to all parts of the country, and the same remarks will not apply to them all. There is no country in which the domesticated plum flora is so complex as in North America, for not only are the specific types of Europe and of Japan grown, but also species that are peculiar to this continent. In the northeastern states and on the Pacific slope the European or domestica types are the leading plums. In these same areas and also in the South and in parts of the mid-continental region, the Japanese plums also are now popular. In the cold North, in the great interior basin, and also in many parts of the South, various native types now constitute the leading cultivated plums. These native plums are developed from wild species of the country, and they are unknown in cultivation (except in botanical or amateur collections) in any other part of the world. These have been developed chiefly within fifty and sixty years, although a few varieties are older than this. For a history of this evolution, see Bailey, "Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits;" also, as well as for culture and varieties of plums in general, Waugh, "Plums and Plum-Culture/' and Hedrick, "The Plums of New York." See Prunus.

The plums cultivated in North America may be arranged in the following groups:
1. Domestica or European types, Prunus domestica. Native to western Asia, comprising the common or old-time plums, such as Green Gage, Lombard, Brad- shaw, Yellow Egg, and the like. They are the leading plums from Lake Michigan eastward and north of the Ohio, and on the Pacific slope. Figs. 3068, 3069 are of this species. The Damsons (Fig. 3070) are small- fruited forms of this general species-type. Of late years, hardy races of Prunus domestica have been introduced from Russia. These have value for the colder parts of the plum-growing regions. Figs. 3071, 3072, show representative forms of the Russian type.
2. The Myrobalan or cherry-plum type, Prunus cerasifera. Native to southeastern Europe or southwestern Asia. The seedlings are much used for stocks upon which to bud plums; the species is also the parent of a few named varieties, as Golden Cherry; and DeCaradeuc and Marianna are either offshoots of it or hybrids between it and one of the native plums, probably hybrids.
3. Japanese types, Prunus salicina (P. triflora). Evidently native to China. The type seems to be generally adapted to the United States, and is of great value to both the South and North. This species first appeared in this country in 1870, having been introduced into California from Japan. For historical sketch, see Bulletin No. 62, Cornell Experiment Station (1894); also Bulletin No. 106 (1896); Hedrick, "The Plums of New York." Fig. 3073 shows one of these plums; also Fig. 3074, as to tree forms, which are very variable in the different pomological varieties.
4. The apricot or Simon plum, Prunus Simonii. Native to China. Widely disseminated in this country, but little grown except in parts of California. Introduced about 1881.
5. The americana types, Prunus americana. P. nigra (Figs. 3075, 3076), and P. mexicana. The common wild plum of the North, and extending westward to the Rocky Mountains and southward to the Gulf and Texas. Admirably adapted to climates too severe for the domestica plums, as the Plains and the upper Mississippi Valley.
6. The Wild Goose and Chickasaw types, Prunus hortulana, P. angustifolia, P. Munsoniana (Figs. 3076, 3077). A variable type of plums, comprising such kinds as Wild Goose, Wayland, Moreman, Miner, Golden Beauty, Newman, Caddo Chief, Lone Star, and many others. The species involved in this group are not yet clearly defined botanically, and what part the hybrid and intergradient forms play in the evolution of cultivated varieties is yet largely to be determined. In adaptability they range from Michigan to Texas, eastward and westward, but are essentially fruits of the great interior basin.
7. The Beach plum, Prunus maritima. Native to the coast from New Brunswick to Virginia. In cultivation, represented by the unimportant Bassett's American; also as an ornamental plant.
8. The Pacific Coast native plum, Prunus subcordata, wild in California and Oregon. Sparingly brought into cultivation, chiefly in the form Known as the Sisson plum.
The welding of these many stocks will undoubtedly produce a wide range of fruits in the future, of which we yet see only the first promise. The experiments of Hansen in South Dakota in hybridizing P. Simonii and P. americana, P. salicina and P. americana, P. Besseyi with plums, and others for a marginal climate, as well as the experiences of other workers in combining many of the species, all point to a wealth of plums for a continental area.
The plum of history is Prunus domestica. It is to this species that general pomological literature applies. It gives us the prunes (see Prune). These plums may
be thrown into five general groups, although any classification is arbitrary at certain points:
1. Prunes, characterized by sweet firm flesh, and capable of making a commercial dried product. They may be of any color, although blue-purple prunes are best known. Some of the prunes are grown in the East as ordinary market plums, being sold in the fresh state. Almost any plum can be made into dried prunes, but the varieties used commercially for this purpose constitute a more or less distinct class of sweet and thick- fleshed kinds (see definition, page 2719). In the East, prune is nothing more than a varietal name.
2. Damsons, comprising very small firm plums of various colors, usually borne in clusters, the leaves mostly small. The run-wild plums of old roadsides and farmyards are mostly of the general damson type (Fig. 3070).
3. The green gages, comprising various small green or yellow-green plums, of spherical form and mostly of high quality. Reine Claude is the commonestrepresentative of this group in the East. The name green gage often stands for a group rather than for a variety.
4. Large yellow plums, such as Coe Golden Drop, Washington, and the like.
5. Large colored plums, including the various red, blue, and purple varieties, like the blue prunes, Lombard, Bradshaw, Quackenboss, and the like.
The Japanese plums (Prunus salicina) differ from the domesticas in having longer thinner smooth and mostly shining leaves, smooth twigs, a greater tendency to the production of lateral fruit-buds on the annual growth, and mostly rounder or shorter fruits with colors running more to cherry-reds and light yellows. Most of the varieties are as hardy as the domestica series. The Japanese varieties are important because they add variety to the list, and especially because they are rich in very early kinds, and the fruit is usually so firm that it carries well; aside from this, the trees are vigorous and very productive, and the species is less liable to injuries from black-knot and curculio than the domesticas.

The native plums, chiefly offspring of Prunus americana, P. nigra, P. angustifolia, P. Munsoniana, and P. hortulana represent a wide range of varieties. Those from Prunus americana and P. nigra parentage are very hardy and are adapted to regions in which the domestica and Japanese types are tender, as in northern New England, parts of Canada, and the northern plains states. Those partaking strongly of P. angustifolia parentage, and the greater part of the hortulanas, thrive well in the South, where the climate is too continuously hot for other plums or where the fruit-rot fungus is too prevalent.

The domestica varieties are mostly fertile with themselves, but the natives usually bear best in mixed planting so that pollination is assured. See Pollination. The Japanese varieties also usually profit by mixed plants ing. How far failure to set fruit is due in general to lack of pollination and how far to other causes, is yet largely to be worked out.

Plum-growing.

The plum thrives on a variety of soils. The domesticas commonly do best when planted in clay loam. They usually thrive well on lands which are suited to pears, or on the heavier lands to which apples are adapted. Yet many varieties grow well on lands that are comparatively light or even almost sandy, with good cafe. The americanas thrive best in a rather moist soil, and mulching is often very favorable to the size and quality of the fruit.
The stocks upon which plums are grown are various. By far the greater number of the trees in the North are now grown on Myrobalan, which is a species of rather slow-growing plum (Prunus cerasifera), native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia. This is the stock sometimes recommended in the older fruit- books for the making of dwarf trees; but unless the top is kept well headed in, the trees generally make normal growth upon it. Trees grown on this root are usually larger and finer at one or two years of age than those grown on other plum stocks, and the probability is that they are nearly as useful from the grower's standpoint as any other. However, there are some varieties that overgrow the Myrobalan, and the stock is likely to sprout from the ground and thereby cause trouble. The Myrobalan is variable from seed, and this fact may account for some of the unsatisfactory results now and then reported. St. Julien is perhaps a better stock, but is more expensive to import and less readily budded. The Myrobalan and St. Julien stocks are imported.
Probably the best stock for domesticas, from the standpoint of the grower, is the domestica itself, but seeds of it are more difficult to secure, the stock is more variable and it is more likely to be injured in the nursery row by leaf-fungi; therefore, as a matter of practice, the Myrobalan has very generally supplanted it. In the middle and southern states the peach is largely used as a stock upon which to grow plums, and it seems to be gaining favor in the North. It is undoubtedly a very excellent stock for sandy lands, and, in fact, is probably better for such lands than the Myrobalan itself. Some varieties—of which Lombard and French Damson are examples—do not take well on the peach. The Japanese plums are commonly worked on the peach. The Marianna stock, which is much recommended in the South, has not found favor in the North. Some varieties of plums are such slow and crooked growers in the nursery that it is advisable to top-graft or bud them on some strong and straight stock. The Lombard is no doubt the most adaptable stock for this purpose now grown by nurserymen. The old Union Purple is one of the best stocks, but is not much grown at present. Reine Claude, German Prune, and Copper are probably best when top-worked on some strong stock. For many native varieties, seedlings of vigorous natives, as of Golden Beauty and Wayland, make excellent stocks. Americanas should be worked on their own seedlings, at least in the North. In the South they are often budded on Marianna. The whole subject of plum stocks needs experimental study.
on trees are usually planted when two years old the bud, although some of the strong-growing
may be planted at a year old with the very best s. As a rule, all plum trees are planted about as part as are peaches, that is, from 15 to 20 feet way. Many growers prefer to plant them closer way than the other and eventually to stop cultin in one direction. If this system is used, they

may be placed 18 or 20 feet apart one way, and 8 to 12 feet the other way. When planted, the trees are pruned in essentially the same way as apple trees. It is usually advisable to start tops as low as possible and yet allow of the working of the curculio-catcher or other tools below them. This means that the limbs should start from 3 to 4 feet above the ground. With the modern implements and methods of tillage, there is little inconvenience in working the land if tops are started as low as this. The subsequent pruning of the plum tree has no special difficulties. About four or five main limbs are allowed to form the framework of the top, and in most varieties, especially those which are not very tall growers, the central trunk or leader may be allowed to remain. The fruit of the domesticas is borne mostly on spurs, as shown in Fig. 3078. These spurs, therefore, should not be removed unless it is desired to thin the fruit. In the americanas and the Japanese varieties, the fruit is borne both on spurs and on the annual axial growth.

Insects and diseases.—The black-knot is one of the most serious plum diseases. It is best kept in check by systematically cutting it out (several inches below the swelling) and burning it. The grower should go over his orchard for it in the summer and again as soon as the leaves fall. lf trees are thoroughly sprayed every year with self-boiled lime-sulfur or bordeaux mixture for the leaf-blight fungus, the black-knot will make .comparatively little headway in the orchard.

The blight, which causes the leaves to fall in August or September, is a damaging disease; but it can readily be kept in check by thorough spraying with self-boiled lime-sulfur or bordeaux mixture two or three times during the summer. The mixture for spraying plums should be weaker than for apples, particularly for the Japanese varieties.

The fruit-rot is the work of a fungus. Many times the dead and dried fruit may be seen hanging on the tree all winter, as shown in Fig. 3079; and in such cases it is very likely that the fruit-spur may be killed, as the upper one in the picture has been. In handling this disease, the first consideration is the fact that some varieties are much more susceptible to it than others. The Lombard is one of the worst. Again, if the fruit grows in dense clusters, the disease is more likely to be severe. The thinning of the fruit, therefore, is one of the best preventives of the spread of the disease, and at the same time, also, one of the most efficient means of increasing the size, quality, and salableness of the product. Thorough spraying with self-boiled lime-sulfur
is a specific for the trouble and helpful in related troubles or diseases.

The curculio, which causes wormy fruit, can be held in check by the process described under Peach. Formerly, jarring the beetles on sheets or curculio- catchers (a wheelbarrow-like device with a large cloth hopper) was the prevailing practice with those who gave extra care to their fruit, and this method is still recommendable to amateurs and small plantations; but with the modern good tillage and the practice of keeping all parts of the plantation and the hedge-rows clean, and with the introduction of more effective spraying, the curculio is found to do much less damage and usually to be held sufficiently in check. Practising open pruning to let in the sun, and raking the dropped fruit out into the sun will also check the breeding. How far spraying with arsenicals will control the curculio on plums is not yet well understood, but growers usually feel that it is a distinct aid. To the bordeaux mixture or to self-boiled lime-sulfur, two and one-half pounds of arsenate of lead may be used to the fifty gallons, in one spraying soon after the petals drop, and another a week or ten days later.
L. H. B.

Native American plums.

Approximately 300 varieties of plums, derived chiefly from six native types; have been named, described, and introduced by American nurserymen and have found their way into American orchards and American pomological literature. The major part of this interesting development came in response to the urgent demand, most manifest in the years from 1870 to 1900, for the discovery of new types of garden fruits suited to the peculiar conditions of the middle western prairie states. Outside this area, the native American plums made much less impression, and while they have been widely tried, they have been generally discarded. Even in tne area to which they are native and in which the need for them is greatest, they do not now play an exclusive role. A large part of the named varieties introduced by the nurserymen have already been lost to American horticulture. A creditable minority of these varieties, however, have qualities of absolute and considerable merit, and may be looked on as permanent additions to our pomological wealth. The native varieties are still propagated and planted by thousands annually, both for home use and for market. .For certain culinary purposes, many of the natives are superior; and in many places, particularly in states of middle latitude, they are the most profitable market plums grown.

The americana plums are especially qualified to withstand the severity of northern winters. They are superlatively hardy. They are practically the only plumsgrown in the cold northwestern states (except the comparatively unimportant nigras and the Miners) and their usefulness in northern New England and middle Canada is limited only by the extent to which they are known. Their cultivation has been developed to a special degree in Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and adjacent states. For this region they must be propagated always on americana stock. This stock has other advantages besides its hardiness, and it is coming into extensive use for all sorts of plums in the Northwest. The sand cherry is sometimes used as a stock, but has not yet passed the experimental stage. It dwarfs americana plums worked on it. It is perfectly hardy.

The americana plums are wayward and awkward growers. With many varieties it is impossible to make a comely orchard tree. They do not appear to take kindly to pruning ; and the usual method has been to let them very much alone. Careful pruning during the first few years, directed with a view to forming an open top on comparatively few supporting main branches, will do something toward shaping the trees; but with our present knowledge, no extensive pruning can be recommended for mature trees. The method of heading-in, as often practised with the domestica plums, is especially unadapted to the americanas.

The americana plums are early and very prolific bearers. Overbearing is a habit and a serious fault with most varieties. Extensive thinning of the fruit is indispensable. The trees are sometimes severely attacked by shot-hole fungus, and thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur is necessary. The fruit-rot (sclerotinia) attacks all the native plums more or less, and must be controlled by the usual remedies. See Diseases and Insects, Vol. II.

The nigra group has two or three important varieties of superor hardiness, as Cheney and Aitkin. In general, they bloom earlier and fruit less heavily than the americanas. Their habits and culture are the same.

The Miner-like varieties are hardly to be distinguished from the americanas in any way. They have practically the same geographical range, and may be given the same treatment in the orchard.

The hortulana group includes several varieties of great value, especially for the South. Of these, Wayland, Golden Beauty, Moreman, Benson, and Kanawha may be mentioned. They are not to be recommended generally for localities north of Massachusetts and Nebraska, their northern limit being determined less by their non-hardiness than by the very late ripening. This habit of late ripening, combined with very late blooming, makes them desirable for late marketing, particularly in southern markets. They are very prolific and constant bearers. The trees are free-growing, usually of rather spreading habit, and will bear heading-back better than the americanas. The pruning-knife, if used in season and with good judgment, will assist in making comparatively open-headed trees of these varieties.

The Wild Goose group (P. Munsoniana.) includes varieties like Wild Goose, Milton, Wooton, and Whitaker, specially adapted to the latitude of Maryland. Kentucky, and Kansas. They succeed only less well southward; but are not generally valuable to the north of this line. For the section named, the varieties of this class have unquestionably been the most profitable

plums grown up to the present time. They are propagated chiefly on peach, Marianna, and Myrobalan, but succeed even better on americana stocks. These stocks are all fairly satisfactory, though not equally good for all varieties; but, when peach stocks are used, the union should be made by whip-grafting on the peach root. Otherwise the peach stock comes above the ground and is a prey to the peach borer. The trees are mostly rapid willowy rather zigzag growers; and are amenable to the pruning-knife in about the same degree as the Wayland-like varieties already mentioned. Whitaker makes an open-headed tree without much trouble. So does Sophie. Wild Goose is more inclined to be thick and thorny in the top, but may be thinned carefully to make an accessible head. Milton is much like Wild Goose. Wooton makes a fine vase-form top, which, with a little timely pruning, is almost ideal. Wilder. James Vick, and some others, are prone to make thick bushy thorny tops, and are hard to manage. These varieties are all considerably subject to shot-hole fungus, which often strips them of their foliage in midsummer. They are mostly thin-skinned and liable to crack at ripening times, especially if the weather is wet. They should be picked rather green for shipment, the point to be observed being that they have attained their full size, rather than that they are dead ripe.

The Chickasaw varieties (P. angustifolia) are effective pollinizers for the Wild Goose and Japanese varieties blooming at same time; but very few of them have sufficient value in themselves to make them profitable orchard trees. A few varieties, like Munson and McCartney, are still planted for their own fruit; but in general they have been displaced by other types of plums. The trees are mostly bushy, thorny and thick- topped, sometimes so thick and thorny that the blackbirds can hardly get in to steal the fruit. It is difficult , to prune them enough
to make really satisfactory trees. The Chickasaw plums are specially adapted to the southern states, though Pottawat- tamie (probably a form of Prunus Munsoniana) succeeds as far north as southern Iowa and central Vermont. They propagate readily on any kind of stocks, but are very much given to suckering wherever they make roots of their own.

Other types of native plums, such as the Sand plum, the Beach plum, the Pacific plum, and the like, are not sufficiently numerous in cultivation for their treatment to have been determined.

Hybrid plums of various strains have been introduced in considerable numbers. Most of these hybrid varieties resemble rather strongly one or the other of their parent species; and the best that can be said regarding their culture at this early day is that they may be safely treated like the varieties which they most closely resemble. Wickson, President, and perhaps Climax, with some others, resemble the Simon plum, and ought to have much the same treatment, that is, practically the same treatment as the Japanese varieties. Gonzales, Excelsior, Golden, and Juicy, on the other hand, resemble the Wild Goose type, and may have the same general treatment as Wild Goose. Some of these hybrid varieties, especially crosses of Wild Goose and Chickasaw types with the Japanese plums, are making some stand commercially, especially in the South, West, and in the Rocky Mountain States.

All the native plums, with wholly negligible exceptions, require cross-pollination. For the most part, however, they are fully inter-fertile, so that one given variety will pollinate any other variety, providing the two bloom at the same time. Simultaneous blooming is of chief importance in adjusting varieties to one another for cross-pollination. To determine which varieties bloom together, careful observations should be made in
the orchard and recorded, or recourse must be had to the published tables. Pollination is effected chiefly, if not exclusively, by the bees, so that their presence should be encouraged.

Most, of the native plums make comparatively small trees, so that they may be set somewhat close together in orchard planting, say 12 to 20 feet apart, usually about 15 feet. Some varieties, particularly in the South, need 20 to 30 feet space. Putting a plum orchard down to grass is not admissible under any circumstances; but cultivation should cease with the first of July, or certainly by the middle of July; for the native plums are especially liable to make too much late summer growth. High manuring of the soil is not usually necessary, or even desirable; yet something considerably short of starvation will be found the best treatment for native plums.

F. A. WAUGH.

The plum in California.

The cultivation of the plum in California differs widely from that in the other plum-producing sections of the United States. Here the dreaded curculio is unknown, and while the equally dangerous black-knot has been found infesting a native wild cherry (P. demissa) it has never been observed in cultivated orchards. The most delicate varieties of the Old World find a very congenial home and form the basis of practically all orchard planting. In early mining days the California native plum (Prunus subcordata) was frequently cultivated, and before the introduction of European standard varieties attempts were made to improve the fruit by the usual methods of selection. Some very promising results were obtained; but since the demonstration of the great success of the more delicate and higher-flavored varieties, there has been little incentive to the use of the native species.

It seems hardly fair to make a distinction between "plums" and "prunes" in discussing this subject from the California standpoint. With the exception of the differences in the preparation for market, what may be said of the plum applies as well to the prune; for a prune is simply a plum which dries sweet without removing the pit. In most of the varieties of plums there occurs a
fermentation around the pit in the process of drying, which prevente their being successfully dried without its removal; these are known as "plums." The prune varieties are, however, much richer in sugar which determines their adaptability to drying whole. As California has to find distant markets for most of its immense fruit crops, by far the greater portion of the plum areas are devoted to the production of prunes. The total amounts of plums produced in 1914 are as follows: Dried prunes, 51,000 tone; canned plums,

90,000 cases or 2,160,000 quarts; overland shipments, 7,906 carloads of fresh fruit.

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. It is thrifty and healthy on the immediate coast, in the interior and coast valleys, and well up into the foothills. This is perhaps most strikingly shown by the fact that every county in the state, except two perhaps (one being the city of San Francisco), contains plum or prune orchards, or both. When it is considered that this covers an area of nearly 160,000 square miles, extending through
9 1/2 degrees of latitude, a fair estimate of the adaptability of this fruit to varying conditions of soil and climate will be obtained. By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the California plum season may be extended from May to December. It is not surprising, then, that the acreage devoted to plums and prunes is one of the largest in the state, reaching a total of nearly 142,000 acres, an aggregate of nearly 11,000,000 trees, of which about four-fifths are prunes. Placer County leads in the acreage of plums with 5,500 acres, and Santa Clara in prunes with 58.400 acres. This great industry has developed since the discovery of gold. The early Mission plantings (1769-1823) included varieties of European plums, a few of which were able to survive after the abandonment of the Missions in 1834, by reproducing themselves by suckers. One variety found at Mission Santa Clara was grown and marketed as the "Mission prune" as late as 1870. The introduction of mproved plum varieties, however, dates back to 1851, when the first grafted fruit-trees were brought to the state by Seth Lewelling from Oregon, where he and his brother had established nurseries in 1847. Prior to this introduction, however, the miners were supplied with fruit of the native plums. The first importation of prune cions from France by the United States Patent Office in 1854 did not reach California. It was not until two years later that Pierre Pellier brought with him to San Francisco a small package of cions from the famous prune district of Agen, in France, which arrived in fairly good condition and were at once sent to Pellier's brother, Louis, who had already established a nursery and fruit-garden in the Santa Clara Valley, upon a portion of the site of the present city of San Jose . From these cuttings, a number of trees were produced which succeeded admirably, and eventually were distributed through different sections of the state, but principally in the Santa Clara Valley, which to this day remains the center of the California prune industry. In 1863, the first California- grown and -cured prunes were exhibited at the State Fair in Sacramento; but it was not until 1870 that planting on a commercial scale was begun. Through the seventies, and especially after 1878, numerous orchards were set out, until in 1881 some of the larger growers were producing between five and six tons of cured fruit. Since 1881 the growth of the prune industry has been marvelous, until now there are growers whose annual products reach hundreds of tons.

Considerable difficulty was at first encountered in the selection of the proper grafting stocks. The native species, first used to some extent, were soon found to be unsatisfactory, on account of suckering, and dwarfing effect. Peach, apricot, and almond roots were used, the peach and almond proving best. The introduction of the Myrobalan or French cherry-plum (Prunus cerasifera) and its adoption as a grafting stock for plums and prunes have greatly simplified matters. It does not sucker, and experience has shown that in California it succeeds in low moist lands, in comparatively dry soils, if not too loose, and in stiff upland clay soils. It thus has become the all-round plum stock in California. On deep mellow loam soils, specially adapted to the peach, that root is still preferred for plum stock; but many varieties, e.g., the Columbia, Yellow Egg, and the Washington, do not unite well with it, and cannot, therefore, be worked directly upon it. The almond is widely used in loose, warm, or rocky foothill soils, and the deep light valley loams for the French and Fellenberg prunes. The Myrobalan seedling, then, is used almost entirely, except in special cases, as an all-satisfactory grafting stock for the plum in California. Propagating the Myrobalan stock from cuttings has been practically abandoned, and seedlings are now the rule. This is all-important in California, for there the roots of all plants must necessarily go deep for their moisture and nourishment. In fact, deep-rooting is the rule beyond all common expectation; thus almond roots the thickness of one's thumb have been found at a depth of 22 feet—one of the many instances of the characteristic conditions of California agricultural practice.

Propagation is by both buds and grafts. The usual practice is to bud the young stock in July and August, and then, in January and February following, all those which have not taken can be grafted, thus securing two chances. When peach or almond is used as stock, budding alone is done, as these stocks have been found to take the graft poorly. The trees are not allowed to remain in nursery longer than one year after budding, and in many cases are set out the spring following, as "dormant buds." In early days the tendency was to rather close planting, in some cases as close as 16 feet; but later plantings were made with wider distances, until from 20 to 24 feet has come to be the rule. The laying out of orchards has caused much discussion, some asserting that the quincunx, hexagonal, and triangular systems secure better use of the land and allow better access to plow and cultivator than do the plantings in squares. The square system, however, has come to be most generally used. The style of tree is the low- headed vase-form. The rule is to cut back the young trees at planting to 18 to 24 inches. Until the top is formed the stems are protected, by whitewashing or wrapping with burlap, from the hot afternoon sun. The first year from three to five branches are allowed to grow from the stem, and these used to form the main limbs of the tree. From this time the pruning is done according to the usual methods for the vase-form tree. Many plums, owing to the brittleness of the wood, are yearly pruned rather short but the French prune is able to carry fruit on much longer branches. After the third or fourth season, the growth of wood is much less and usually the pruning operations are confined to keeping the tree in shape, removal of dead or damaged branches, and shortening-in the current season's growth to keep the young twigs in a vigorous growing condition and to prevent overbearing. The long slender branches are not cut back. The long arching "canes" are allowed to remain until they have produced a crop (which they do in the second season with the greatest profusion), the ends resting upon the ground as the fruit gains weight. When these droop too low, they are cut back to the crown, when others will be produced to take their places.

Thorough and persistent tillage is one of the first principles of the California orchardist, for with him the absence of summer rains makes the conservation of the winter rainfall an absolute necessity. Even in the summer-irrigated districts the soil is tilled and kept loose as soon as it is in proper condition, and no weeds allowed to rob the trees. Formerly all the prune and plum crop was produced without summer irrigation. Winter irrigation was often practised and the water conserved in the soil by the usual methods of tillage. But regular bearing of fruit of good size requires adequate moisture. The installation of pumping plants and irrigation systems, therefore, has received a great impetus, and the use of summer irrigation when required is an established practice.

In some of the older orchards, the need of fertilizing is beginning to be felt. In a great many, the main deficiency has been found to be vegetable matter, and, consequently, nitrogen. The extremely fine tilth which has been maintained has resulted in the destruction of all natural green growth and the "burning out" of the humus, and has necessitated the call for a green- manure crop. This problem is rendered more difficult in California by the fact that any such crop must be produced during the winter months and be ready to plow-in with the beginning of tillage in March; for no summer-growing crop can be allowed in the orchard, unless the land is regularly irrigated and then alfalfa may be grown. On non-irrigated orchards, winter- growth of hardy legumes, as vetches, is undertaken.

As mentioned above, the plum has few serious enemies in California, and none which cannot be held in check by spraying and other treatment. Upon the leaves the plum aphis and the canker-worm have given some trouble. The "peach-moth" has been found at work on the prune trees, but not to any serious extent. The trees are subject to the attacks of the black scale (Saissetia oleae), apricot scale (Lecanium corni), frosted scale (L. pruinosum) and pernicious scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) being the most frequent; all of which, however, the California fruit-grower has learned to keep in check. The crown root-knot has also caused considerable trouble. Relief has been secured by cutting off the knots and painting the wounds with bordeaux mixture. In one district the peach root-borer has established itself and requires regular treatment. Thrips have also done some injury to blossoms and young fruit. In California some fruit is usually borne the third year; in the fourth a fairly profitable crop is expected; the fifth, from 50 to 60 pounds to a tree should be produced, which ought to double in the sixth, and after that from 150 to 300 pounds is the rule. These figures apply mostly to the prunes. From 200 to 300 pounds are considered the average at full bearing in the Santa Clara Valley. In some instances 600 and even 800 pounds have been produced, and a six-year-old tree at Visalia (San Joaquín Valley) is credited with 1,102 pounds of fruit in one season.

It would be impossible to enumerate a full list of the varieties actually in successful cultivation within the state. Such a list would probably include every noteworthy variety of domestica plum. Many, however, despite excellence of quality and flavor, are suited only for home-growing, or at most for local markets, on account of poor shipping qualities. For this reason the number of varieties planted on a large scale is being constantly reduced.
At the head of the list stands the Prune d'Agen,

the originally introduced French prune, which has proved itself adapted to more varying conditions than any other variety, and is therefore perhaps the most generally planted variety of fruit in the state. It is, of course, used chiefly for curing. In the same category belong the Robe de Sergeant, Imperial Epineuse, Silver, and Sugar—all drying varieties. The Robe de Sergeant (supposed to be a synonym of the Prune d'Agen in France) in California is grown as a distinct variety. The fruit is larger, usually more highly flavored, and has commanded higher prices in the San Francisco market. The tree, however, has not proved so widely adaptable, and is in disfavor on account of defective bearing. The Silver prune (an Oregon seedling of Coe Golden Drop) is also a defective bearer in some districts, and is used mostly in the preparation of "bleached prunes," for which it has proved very profitable in some instances. It is sometimes marketed in the fresh state also. The Imperial Epineuse, a recently introduced French variety was largely planted but though large, it has proved rather irregular in bearing, difficult to cure and very subject to thrip injury. Luther Burbank's Sugar prune bases its claims upon superior earliness, sweetness and flavor, together with fair medium size. It dries easily but is of coarse texture. The German prune, Italian (Fellenberg), Golden prune, Hungarian (Pond Seedling) and Tragedy are varieties sometimes used for curing, but are frequently shipped green as "plums." Of these the German is perhaps the most extensively used. The Italian succeeds well along the coast in places liable to fogs or sea winds, where the French is not at its best. It is valuable as a late variety, and is said to dry excellently, as does also the Golden, an Oregon seedling. The fruit of the Hungarian (Pond) is very handsome and showy, and is rated, on its style, a good seller as fresh fruit in both the local and distant markets, but is not suitable for drying. The Tragedy and the Clyman (California seedlings), Giant (Burbank's), Royal Hative, Simon, and Peach, are popular for early market—especially for eastern shipment. For canning, Coe Golden Drop and the Imperial Gage are the most popular. The Jefferson, Washington, and Yellow Egg are all highly regarded, and planted more or less widely, as they suit the different climatic regions. Many of the Japanese plums are grown. Red June, Satsuma, Burbank, Wickson, Climax, Santa Rosa, and Formosa (all Burbank varieties) are prominent for eastern shipment, local market and domestic use.
See Wickson's "California Fruits and How to Grow Them," the Reports of the California State Board of Horticulture, and the Reports and Bulletins of the California Experiment Station.

ARNOLD V. STUBENRAUCH.

E. J. WlCKSON.

Plum, Cherry: Prunut cerasifera. P., Cocoa: Chryso- balanue Icaco. P., Date: Diospyros. P., Governor's: Flacourtia Ramontchi. P., Japan: Properly prunus salicina; improperly applied to the loquat, Eriobotrya japonica. P., Marmalade: Lucuma mammusa.
}}

Plum

2015-03-05T01:51:46Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Rosaceae
|genus=Prunus
|common_name=Plum
|habit=tree
|lifespan=perennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=deciduous, flowers, edible, fruit, bees
|flower_season=early spring, mid spring
|flowers=white, single
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=3
|max_zone=9.5
|image=Plum on tree02.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Plums
}}
A '''plum''' or '''gage''' is a [[drupe|stone fruit]] [[tree]] in the genus ''[[Prunus]]'', subgenus ''Prunus''. The subgenus is distinguished from other subgenera ([[peach]]es, [[cherry|cherries]], [[bird cherry (subgenus)|bird cherries]], etc) in the shoots having a terminal bud and the side buds solitary (not clustered), the flowers being grouped 1-5 together on short stems, and the fruit having a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone.

Plums come in a wide variety of colours and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin colour.

==Cultivation==
When it flowers in the early spring, a plum tree will be covered in [[blossom]], and in a good year approximately 50% of the flowers will be pollinated and become plums. Flowering starts after 80 [[growing degree day]]s.

If the weather is too dry the plums will not develop past a certain stage, but will fall from the tree while still tiny green buds, and if it is unseasonably wet or if the plums are not harvested as soon as they are ripe, the fruit may develop a fungal condition called [[brown rot]]. Brown rot is not toxic, and very small affected areas can be cut out of the fruit, but unless the rot is caught immediately the fruit will no longer be edible. Plum is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] including [[November Moth]], [[Willow Beauty]] and [[Short-cloaked Moth]].

==Varieties==
[[Image:Plums.jpg|thumb|250px|Plums]]
Plum [[cultivar]]s in use today include:
* [[Damson]], or [[Damask Plum]]
* [[Greengage]], or greengage plum (firm, green flesh and skin even when ripe)
* [[Mirabelle Plum|Mirabelle]] (a dark yellow plum predominantly grown in northeast [[France]])
* Satsuma plum (firm red flesh with a red skin)
* Golden or yellowgage plum (like the greengage, but yellow)

The subgenus is divided into three sections:
*Sect. ''Prunus'' ('''[[Old World]] plums'''). Leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers 1-3 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed.
**''[[Cherry plum|P. cerasifera]]'' (cherry plum)
**''Prunus cocomilia''
**''Prunus consociiflora"
**''[[Prunus domestica|P. domestica]]'' (species of most "plums" and "[[prune]]s" sold as such)
**''[[Prunus insititia|P. insititia]]''
**''[[Prunus salicina|P. salicina]]'' (Japanese plum)
**''[[Prunus simonii|P. simonii]]''
**''[[Blackthorn|P. spinosa]]'' (blackthorn or sloe)
*Sect. ''Prunocerasus'' ('''[[New World]] plums'''). Leaves in bud folded inwards; flowers 3-5 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed.
**''[[Prunus alleghaniensis|P. alleghaniensis]]''
**''[[Prunus americana|P. americana]]''
**''[[Prunus angustifolia|P. angustifolia]]''
**''[[Prunus hortulana|P. hortulana]]''
**''[[Prunus maritima|P. maritima]]'' (beach plum)
**''[[Prunus mexicana|P. mexicana]]''
**''[[Prunus nigra|P. nigra]]''
**''[[Prunus orthosepala|P. orthosepala]]''
**''[[Prunus subcordata|P. subcordata]]'' (Klamath, Oregon, or Sierra plum)
*Sect. ''Armeniaca'' ('''Apricots'''). Leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers very short-stalked; fruit velvety. Treated as a distinct subgenus by some authors.
**''[[Apricot|P. armeniaca]]'' (apricot)
**''[[Prunus brigantina|P. brigantina]]''
**''[[Ume|P. mume]]'' (ume)
**''[[Prunus sibirica|P. sibirica]]''

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Plums on tree.jpg|''Prunus domestica''
Image:Red Plums on tree.jpg|''Prunus domestica''
Image:Bluebyrd plum.jpg|Bluebyrd plum
Image:Plum2web.jpg|Plum (variety Tucker) - watercolor 1894
Image:Plum1web.jpg|Plum (variety Pacific Prune) - watercolor 1893
Image:Plum blossoming.jpg
Image:Plum blossoms.jpg
Image:PlumBlossom.JPG|Plum blossoms
Image:Plum flowers.jpg|Plum blossom
Image:Shiny plum.jpg
Image:Plum tree.jpg
Image:Plums in basket.jpg
Image:Plums in tree.jpg
Image:Plums early morning.jpg
Image:Flor del ciruelo.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==See also==
*[[Fruit trees]]
*[[Fruit tree forms]]
*[[Fruit tree propagation]]
*[[Pruning fruit trees]]
*[[Pluot]]
*[[Prune (fruit)]]
*[[Dietary Fiber]]

==External links==
*{{wplink}}

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{{Inc|

Plum. The tree and fruit of many species of Prunus. A few kinds are grown for the ornamental flowers and others for colored or variegated foliage. Prunes are cured dried plums.
It is probably more difficult to give specific practical advice for the management of the plum than for any other common fruit, for the reason that it represents
several distinct species which are not equally adapted to all parts of the country, and the same remarks will not apply to them all. There is no country in which the domesticated plum flora is so complex as in North America, for not only are the specific types of Europe and of Japan grown, but also species that are peculiar to this continent. In the northeastern states and on the Pacific slope the European or domestica types are the leading plums. In these same areas and also in the South and in parts of the mid-continental region, the Japanese plums also are now popular. In the cold North, in the great interior basin, and also in many parts of the South, various native types now constitute the leading cultivated plums. These native plums are developed from wild species of the country, and they are unknown in cultivation (except in botanical or amateur collections) in any other part of the world. These have been developed chiefly within fifty and sixty years, although a few varieties are older than this. For a history of this evolution, see Bailey, "Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits;" also, as well as for culture and varieties of plums in general, Waugh, "Plums and Plum-Culture/' and Hedrick, "The Plums of New York." See Prunus.

The plums cultivated in North America may be arranged in the following groups:
1. Domestica or European types, Prunus domestica. Native to western Asia, comprising the common or old-time plums, such as Green Gage, Lombard, Brad- shaw, Yellow Egg, and the like. They are the leading plums from Lake Michigan eastward and north of the Ohio, and on the Pacific slope. Figs. 3068, 3069 are of this species. The Damsons (Fig. 3070) are small- fruited forms of this general species-type. Of late years, hardy races of Prunus domestica have been introduced from Russia. These have value for the colder parts of the plum-growing regions. Figs. 3071, 3072, show representative forms of the Russian type.
2. The Myrobalan or cherry-plum type, Prunus cerasifera. Native to southeastern Europe or southwestern Asia. The seedlings are much used for stocks upon which to bud plums; the species is also the parent of a few named varieties, as Golden Cherry; and DeCaradeuc and Marianna are either offshoots of it or hybrids between it and one of the native plums, probably hybrids.
3. Japanese types, Prunus salicina (P. triflora). Evidently native to China. The type seems to be generally adapted to the United States, and is of great value to both the South and North. This species first appeared in this country in 1870, having been introduced into California from Japan. For historical sketch, see Bulletin No. 62, Cornell Experiment Station (1894); also Bulletin No. 106 (1896); Hedrick, "The Plums of New York." Fig. 3073 shows one of these plums; also Fig. 3074, as to tree forms, which are very variable in the different pomological varieties.
4. The apricot or Simon plum, Prunus Simonii. Native to China. Widely disseminated in this country, but little grown except in parts of California. Introduced about 1881.
5. The americana types, Prunus americana. P. nigra (Figs. 3075, 3076), and P. mexicana. The common wild plum of the North, and extending westward to the Rocky Mountains and southward to the Gulf and Texas. Admirably adapted to climates too severe for the domestica plums, as the Plains and the upper Mississippi Valley.
6. The Wild Goose and Chickasaw types, Prunus hortulana, P. angustifolia, P. Munsoniana (Figs. 3076, 3077). A variable type of plums, comprising such kinds as Wild Goose, Wayland, Moreman, Miner, Golden Beauty, Newman, Caddo Chief, Lone Star, and many others. The species involved in this group are not yet clearly defined botanically, and what part the hybrid and intergradient forms play in the evolution of cultivated varieties is yet largely to be determined. In adaptability they range from Michigan to Texas, eastward and westward, but are essentially fruits of the great interior basin.
7. The Beach plum, Prunus maritima. Native to the coast from New Brunswick to Virginia. In cultivation, represented by the unimportant Bassett's American; also as an ornamental plant.
8. The Pacific Coast native plum, Prunus subcordata, wild in California and Oregon. Sparingly brought into cultivation, chiefly in the form Known as the Sisson plum.
The welding of these many stocks will undoubtedly produce a wide range of fruits in the future, of which we yet see only the first promise. The experiments of Hansen in South Dakota in hybridizing P. Simonii and P. americana, P. salicina and P. americana, P. Besseyi with plums, and others for a marginal climate, as well as the experiences of other workers in combining many of the species, all point to a wealth of plums for a continental area.
The plum of history is Prunus domestica. It is to this species that general pomological literature applies. It gives us the prunes (see Prune). These plums may
be thrown into five general groups, although any classification is arbitrary at certain points:
1. Prunes, characterized by sweet firm flesh, and capable of making a commercial dried product. They may be of any color, although blue-purple prunes are best known. Some of the prunes are grown in the East as ordinary market plums, being sold in the fresh state. Almost any plum can be made into dried prunes, but the varieties used commercially for this purpose constitute a more or less distinct class of sweet and thick- fleshed kinds (see definition, page 2719). In the East, prune is nothing more than a varietal name.
2. Damsons, comprising very small firm plums of various colors, usually borne in clusters, the leaves mostly small. The run-wild plums of old roadsides and farmyards are mostly of the general damson type (Fig. 3070).
3. The green gages, comprising various small green or yellow-green plums, of spherical form and mostly of high quality. Reine Claude is the commonestrepresentative of this group in the East. The name green gage often stands for a group rather than for a variety.
4. Large yellow plums, such as Coe Golden Drop, Washington, and the like.
5. Large colored plums, including the various red, blue, and purple varieties, like the blue prunes, Lombard, Bradshaw, Quackenboss, and the like.
The Japanese plums (Prunus salicina) differ from the domesticas in having longer thinner smooth and mostly shining leaves, smooth twigs, a greater tendency to the production of lateral fruit-buds on the annual growth, and mostly rounder or shorter fruits with colors running more to cherry-reds and light yellows. Most of the varieties are as hardy as the domestica series. The Japanese varieties are important because they add variety to the list, and especially because they are rich in very early kinds, and the fruit is usually so firm that it carries well; aside from this, the trees are vigorous and very productive, and the species is less liable to injuries from black-knot and curculio than the domesticas.

The native plums, chiefly offspring of Prunus americana, P. nigra, P. angustifolia, P. Munsoniana, and P. hortulana represent a wide range of varieties. Those from Prunus americana and P. nigra parentage are very hardy and are adapted to regions in which the domestica and Japanese types are tender, as in northern New England, parts of Canada, and the northern plains states. Those partaking strongly of P. angustifolia parentage, and the greater part of the hortulanas, thrive well in the South, where the climate is too continuously hot for other plums or where the fruit-rot fungus is too prevalent.

The domestica varieties are mostly fertile with themselves, but the natives usually bear best in mixed planting so that pollination is assured. See Pollination. The Japanese varieties also usually profit by mixed plants ing. How far failure to set fruit is due in general to lack of pollination and how far to other causes, is yet largely to be worked out.

Plum-growing.

The plum thrives on a variety of soils. The domesticas commonly do best when planted in clay loam. They usually thrive well on lands which are suited to pears, or on the heavier lands to which apples are adapted. Yet many varieties grow well on lands that are comparatively light or even almost sandy, with good cafe. The americanas thrive best in a rather moist soil, and mulching is often very favorable to the size and quality of the fruit.
The stocks upon which plums are grown are various. By far the greater number of the trees in the North are now grown on Myrobalan, which is a species of rather slow-growing plum (Prunus cerasifera), native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia. This is the stock sometimes recommended in the older fruit- books for the making of dwarf trees; but unless the top is kept well headed in, the trees generally make normal growth upon it. Trees grown on this root are usually larger and finer at one or two years of age than those grown on other plum stocks, and the probability is that they are nearly as useful from the grower's standpoint as any other. However, there are some varieties that overgrow the Myrobalan, and the stock is likely to sprout from the ground and thereby cause trouble. The Myrobalan is variable from seed, and this fact may account for some of the unsatisfactory results now and then reported. St. Julien is perhaps a better stock, but is more expensive to import and less readily budded. The Myrobalan and St. Julien stocks are imported.
Probably the best stock for domesticas, from the standpoint of the grower, is the domestica itself, but seeds of it are more difficult to secure, the stock is more variable and it is more likely to be injured in the nursery row by leaf-fungi; therefore, as a matter of practice, the Myrobalan has very generally supplanted it. In the middle and southern states the peach is largely used as a stock upon which to grow plums, and it seems to be gaining favor in the North. It is undoubtedly a very excellent stock for sandy lands, and, in fact, is probably better for such lands than the Myrobalan itself. Some varieties—of which Lombard and French Damson are examples—do not take well on the peach. The Japanese plums are commonly worked on the peach. The Marianna stock, which is much recommended in the South, has not found favor in the North. Some varieties of plums are such slow and crooked growers in the nursery that it is advisable to top-graft or bud them on some strong and straight stock. The Lombard is no doubt the most adaptable stock for this purpose now grown by nurserymen. The old Union Purple is one of the best stocks, but is not much grown at present. Reine Claude, German Prune, and Copper are probably best when top-worked on some strong stock. For many native varieties, seedlings of vigorous natives, as of Golden Beauty and Wayland, make excellent stocks. Americanas should be worked on their own seedlings, at least in the North. In the South they are often budded on Marianna. The whole subject of plum stocks needs experimental study.
on trees are usually planted when two years old the bud, although some of the strong-growing
may be planted at a year old with the very best s. As a rule, all plum trees are planted about as part as are peaches, that is, from 15 to 20 feet way. Many growers prefer to plant them closer way than the other and eventually to stop cultin in one direction. If this system is used, they

may be placed 18 or 20 feet apart one way, and 8 to 12 feet the other way. When planted, the trees are pruned in essentially the same way as apple trees. It is usually advisable to start tops as low as possible and yet allow of the working of the curculio-catcher or other tools below them. This means that the limbs should start from 3 to 4 feet above the ground. With the modern implements and methods of tillage, there is little inconvenience in working the land if tops are started as low as this. The subsequent pruning of the plum tree has no special difficulties. About four or five main limbs are allowed to form the framework of the top, and in most varieties, especially those which are not very tall growers, the central trunk or leader may be allowed to remain. The fruit of the domesticas is borne mostly on spurs, as shown in Fig. 3078. These spurs, therefore, should not be removed unless it is desired to thin the fruit. In the americanas and the Japanese varieties, the fruit is borne both on spurs and on the annual axial growth.

Insects and diseases.—The black-knot is one of the most serious plum diseases. It is best kept in check by systematically cutting it out (several inches below the swelling) and burning it. The grower should go over his orchard for it in the summer and again as soon as the leaves fall. lf trees are thoroughly sprayed every year with self-boiled lime-sulfur or bordeaux mixture for the leaf-blight fungus, the black-knot will make .comparatively little headway in the orchard.

The blight, which causes the leaves to fall in August or September, is a damaging disease; but it can readily be kept in check by thorough spraying with self-boiled lime-sulfur or bordeaux mixture two or three times during the summer. The mixture for spraying plums should be weaker than for apples, particularly for the Japanese varieties.

The fruit-rot is the work of a fungus. Many times the dead and dried fruit may be seen hanging on the tree all winter, as shown in Fig. 3079; and in such cases it is very likely that the fruit-spur may be killed, as the upper one in the picture has been. In handling this disease, the first consideration is the fact that some varieties are much more susceptible to it than others. The Lombard is one of the worst. Again, if the fruit grows in dense clusters, the disease is more likely to be severe. The thinning of the fruit, therefore, is one of the best preventives of the spread of the disease, and at the same time, also, one of the most efficient means of increasing the size, quality, and salableness of the product. Thorough spraying with self-boiled lime-sulfur
is a specific for the trouble and helpful in related troubles or diseases.

The curculio, which causes wormy fruit, can be held in check by the process described under Peach. Formerly, jarring the beetles on sheets or curculio- catchers (a wheelbarrow-like device with a large cloth hopper) was the prevailing practice with those who gave extra care to their fruit, and this method is still recommendable to amateurs and small plantations; but with the modern good tillage and the practice of keeping all parts of the plantation and the hedge-rows clean, and with the introduction of more effective spraying, the curculio is found to do much less damage and usually to be held sufficiently in check. Practising open pruning to let in the sun, and raking the dropped fruit out into the sun will also check the breeding. How far spraying with arsenicals will control the curculio on plums is not yet well understood, but growers usually feel that it is a distinct aid. To the bordeaux mixture or to self-boiled lime-sulfur, two and one-half pounds of arsenate of lead may be used to the fifty gallons, in one spraying soon after the petals drop, and another a week or ten days later.
L. H. B.

Native American plums.

Approximately 300 varieties of plums, derived chiefly from six native types; have been named, described, and introduced by American nurserymen and have found their way into American orchards and American pomological literature. The major part of this interesting development came in response to the urgent demand, most manifest in the years from 1870 to 1900, for the discovery of new types of garden fruits suited to the peculiar conditions of the middle western prairie states. Outside this area, the native American plums made much less impression, and while they have been widely tried, they have been generally discarded. Even in tne area to which they are native and in which the need for them is greatest, they do not now play an exclusive role. A large part of the named varieties introduced by the nurserymen have already been lost to American horticulture. A creditable minority of these varieties, however, have qualities of absolute and considerable merit, and may be looked on as permanent additions to our pomological wealth. The native varieties are still propagated and planted by thousands annually, both for home use and for market. .For certain culinary purposes, many of the natives are superior; and in many places, particularly in states of middle latitude, they are the most profitable market plums grown.

The americana plums are especially qualified to withstand the severity of northern winters. They are superlatively hardy. They are practically the only plumsgrown in the cold northwestern states (except the comparatively unimportant nigras and the Miners) and their usefulness in northern New England and middle Canada is limited only by the extent to which they are known. Their cultivation has been developed to a special degree in Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and adjacent states. For this region they must be propagated always on americana stock. This stock has other advantages besides its hardiness, and it is coming into extensive use for all sorts of plums in the Northwest. The sand cherry is sometimes used as a stock, but has not yet passed the experimental stage. It dwarfs americana plums worked on it. It is perfectly hardy.

The americana plums are wayward and awkward growers. With many varieties it is impossible to make a comely orchard tree. They do not appear to take kindly to pruning ; and the usual method has been to let them very much alone. Careful pruning during the first few years, directed with a view to forming an open top on comparatively few supporting main branches, will do something toward shaping the trees; but with our present knowledge, no extensive pruning can be recommended for mature trees. The method of heading-in, as often practised with the domestica plums, is especially unadapted to the americanas.

The americana plums are early and very prolific bearers. Overbearing is a habit and a serious fault with most varieties. Extensive thinning of the fruit is indispensable. The trees are sometimes severely attacked by shot-hole fungus, and thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur is necessary. The fruit-rot (sclerotinia) attacks all the native plums more or less, and must be controlled by the usual remedies. See Diseases and Insects, Vol. II.

The nigra group has two or three important varieties of superor hardiness, as Cheney and Aitkin. In general, they bloom earlier and fruit less heavily than the americanas. Their habits and culture are the same.

The Miner-like varieties are hardly to be distinguished from the americanas in any way. They have practically the same geographical range, and may be given the same treatment in the orchard.

The hortulana group includes several varieties of great value, especially for the South. Of these, Wayland, Golden Beauty, Moreman, Benson, and Kanawha may be mentioned. They are not to be recommended generally for localities north of Massachusetts and Nebraska, their northern limit being determined less by their non-hardiness than by the very late ripening. This habit of late ripening, combined with very late blooming, makes them desirable for late marketing, particularly in southern markets. They are very prolific and constant bearers. The trees are free-growing, usually of rather spreading habit, and will bear heading-back better than the americanas. The pruning-knife, if used in season and with good judgment, will assist in making comparatively open-headed trees of these varieties.

The Wild Goose group (P. Munsoniana.) includes varieties like Wild Goose, Milton, Wooton, and Whitaker, specially adapted to the latitude of Maryland. Kentucky, and Kansas. They succeed only less well southward; but are not generally valuable to the north of this line. For the section named, the varieties of this class have unquestionably been the most profitable

plums grown up to the present time. They are propagated chiefly on peach, Marianna, and Myrobalan, but succeed even better on americana stocks. These stocks are all fairly satisfactory, though not equally good for all varieties; but, when peach stocks are used, the union should be made by whip-grafting on the peach root. Otherwise the peach stock comes above the ground and is a prey to the peach borer. The trees are mostly rapid willowy rather zigzag growers; and are amenable to the pruning-knife in about the same degree as the Wayland-like varieties already mentioned. Whitaker makes an open-headed tree without much trouble. So does Sophie. Wild Goose is more inclined to be thick and thorny in the top, but may be thinned carefully to make an accessible head. Milton is much like Wild Goose. Wooton makes a fine vase-form top, which, with a little timely pruning, is almost ideal. Wilder. James Vick, and some others, are prone to make thick bushy thorny tops, and are hard to manage. These varieties are all considerably subject to shot-hole fungus, which often strips them of their foliage in midsummer. They are mostly thin-skinned and liable to crack at ripening times, especially if the weather is wet. They should be picked rather green for shipment, the point to be observed being that they have attained their full size, rather than that they are dead ripe.

The Chickasaw varieties (P. angustifolia) are effective pollinizers for the Wild Goose and Japanese varieties blooming at same time; but very few of them have sufficient value in themselves to make them profitable orchard trees. A few varieties, like Munson and McCartney, are still planted for their own fruit; but in general they have been displaced by other types of plums. The trees are mostly bushy, thorny and thick- topped, sometimes so thick and thorny that the blackbirds can hardly get in to steal the fruit. It is difficult , to prune them enough
to make really satisfactory trees. The Chickasaw plums are specially adapted to the southern states, though Pottawat- tamie (probably a form of Prunus Munsoniana) succeeds as far north as southern Iowa and central Vermont. They propagate readily on any kind of stocks, but are very much given to suckering wherever they make roots of their own.

Other types of native plums, such as the Sand plum, the Beach plum, the Pacific plum, and the like, are not sufficiently numerous in cultivation for their treatment to have been determined.

Hybrid plums of various strains have been introduced in considerable numbers. Most of these hybrid varieties resemble rather strongly one or the other of their parent species; and the best that can be said regarding their culture at this early day is that they may be safely treated like the varieties which they most closely resemble. Wickson, President, and perhaps Climax, with some others, resemble the Simon plum, and ought to have much the same treatment, that is, practically the same treatment as the Japanese varieties. Gonzales, Excelsior, Golden, and Juicy, on the other hand, resemble the Wild Goose type, and may have the same general treatment as Wild Goose. Some of these hybrid varieties, especially crosses of Wild Goose and Chickasaw types with the Japanese plums, are making some stand commercially, especially in the South, West, and in the Rocky Mountain States.

All the native plums, with wholly negligible exceptions, require cross-pollination. For the most part, however, they are fully inter-fertile, so that one given variety will pollinate any other variety, providing the two bloom at the same time. Simultaneous blooming is of chief importance in adjusting varieties to one another for cross-pollination. To determine which varieties bloom together, careful observations should be made in
the orchard and recorded, or recourse must be had to the published tables. Pollination is effected chiefly, if not exclusively, by the bees, so that their presence should be encouraged.

Most, of the native plums make comparatively small trees, so that they may be set somewhat close together in orchard planting, say 12 to 20 feet apart, usually about 15 feet. Some varieties, particularly in the South, need 20 to 30 feet space. Putting a plum orchard down to grass is not admissible under any circumstances; but cultivation should cease with the first of July, or certainly by the middle of July; for the native plums are especially liable to make too much late summer growth. High manuring of the soil is not usually necessary, or even desirable; yet something considerably short of starvation will be found the best treatment for native plums.

F. A. WAUGH.

The plum in California.

The cultivation of the plum in California differs widely from that in the other plum-producing sections of the United States. Here the dreaded curculio is unknown, and while the equally dangerous black-knot has been found infesting a native wild cherry (P. demissa) it has never been observed in cultivated orchards. The most delicate varieties of the Old World find a very congenial home and form the basis of practically all orchard planting. In early mining days the California native plum (Prunus subcordata) was frequently cultivated, and before the introduction of European standard varieties attempts were made to improve the fruit by the usual methods of selection. Some very promising results were obtained; but since the demonstration of the great success of the more delicate and higher-flavored varieties, there has been little incentive to the use of the native species.

It seems hardly fair to make a distinction between "plums" and "prunes" in discussing this subject from the California standpoint. With the exception of the differences in the preparation for market, what may be said of the plum applies as well to the prune; for a prune is simply a plum which dries sweet without removing the pit. In most of the varieties of plums there occurs a
fermentation around the pit in the process of drying, which prevente their being successfully dried without its removal; these are known as "plums." The prune varieties are, however, much richer in sugar which determines their adaptability to drying whole. As California has to find distant markets for most of its immense fruit crops, by far the greater portion of the plum areas are devoted to the production of prunes. The total amounts of plums produced in 1914 are as follows: Dried prunes, 51,000 tone; canned plums,

90,000 cases or 2,160,000 quarts; overland shipments, 7,906 carloads of fresh fruit.

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. It is thrifty and healthy on the immediate coast, in the interior and coast valleys, and well up into the foothills. This is perhaps most strikingly shown by the fact that every county in the state, except two perhaps (one being the city of San Francisco), contains plum or prune orchards, or both. When it is considered that this covers an area of nearly 160,000 square miles, extending through
9 1/2 degrees of latitude, a fair estimate of the adaptability of this fruit to varying conditions of soil and climate will be obtained. By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the California plum season may be extended from May to December. It is not surprising, then, that the acreage devoted to plums and prunes is one of the largest in the state, reaching a total of nearly 142,000 acres, an aggregate of nearly 11,000,000 trees, of which about four-fifths are prunes. Placer County leads in the acreage of plums with 5,500 acres, and Santa Clara in prunes with 58.400 acres. This great industry has developed since the discovery of gold. The early Mission plantings (1769-1823) included varieties of European plums, a few of which were able to survive after the abandonment of the Missions in 1834, by reproducing themselves by suckers. One variety found at Mission Santa Clara was grown and marketed as the "Mission prune" as late as 1870. The introduction of mproved plum varieties, however, dates back to 1851, when the first grafted fruit-trees were brought to the state by Seth Lewelling from Oregon, where he and his brother had established nurseries in 1847. Prior to this introduction, however, the miners were supplied with fruit of the native plums. The first importation of prune cions from France by the United States Patent Office in 1854 did not reach California. It was not until two years later that Pierre Pellier brought with him to San Francisco a small package of cions from the famous prune district of Agen, in France, which arrived in fairly good condition and were at once sent to Pellier's brother, Louis, who had already established a nursery and fruit-garden in the Santa Clara Valley, upon a portion of the site of the present city of San Jose . From these cuttings, a number of trees were produced which succeeded admirably, and eventually were distributed through different sections of the state, but principally in the Santa Clara Valley, which to this day remains the center of the California prune industry. In 1863, the first California- grown and -cured prunes were exhibited at the State Fair in Sacramento; but it was not until 1870 that planting on a commercial scale was begun. Through the seventies, and especially after 1878, numerous orchards were set out, until in 1881 some of the larger growers were producing between five and six tons of cured fruit. Since 1881 the growth of the prune industry has been marvelous, until now there are growers whose annual products reach hundreds of tons.

Considerable difficulty was at first encountered in the selection of the proper grafting stocks. The native species, first used to some extent, were soon found to be unsatisfactory, on account of suckering, and dwarfing effect. Peach, apricot, and almond roots were used, the peach and almond proving best. The introduction of the Myrobalan or French cherry-plum (Prunus cerasifera) and its adoption as a grafting stock for plums and prunes have greatly simplified matters. It does not sucker, and experience has shown that in California it succeeds in low moist lands, in comparatively dry soils, if not too loose, and in stiff upland clay soils. It thus has become the all-round plum stock in California. On deep mellow loam soils, specially adapted to the peach, that root is still preferred for plum stock; but many varieties, e.g., the Columbia, Yellow Egg, and the Washington, do not unite well with it, and cannot, therefore, be worked directly upon it. The almond is widely used in loose, warm, or rocky foothill soils, and the deep light valley loams for the French and Fellenberg prunes. The Myrobalan seedling, then, is used almost entirely, except in special cases, as an all-satisfactory grafting stock for the plum in California. Propagating the Myrobalan stock from cuttings has been practically abandoned, and seedlings are now the rule. This is all-important in California, for there the roots of all plants must necessarily go deep for their moisture and nourishment. In fact, deep-rooting is the rule beyond all common expectation; thus almond roots the thickness of one's thumb have been found at a depth of 22 feet—one of the many instances of the characteristic conditions of California agricultural practice.

Propagation is by both buds and grafts. The usual practice is to bud the young stock in July and August, and then, in January and February following, all those which have not taken can be grafted, thus securing two chances. When peach or almond is used as stock, budding alone is done, as these stocks have been found to take the graft poorly. The trees are not allowed to remain in nursery longer than one year after budding, and in many cases are set out the spring following, as "dormant buds." In early days the tendency was to rather close planting, in some cases as close as 16 feet; but later plantings were made with wider distances, until from 20 to 24 feet has come to be the rule. The laying out of orchards has caused much discussion, some asserting that the quincunx, hexagonal, and triangular systems secure better use of the land and allow better access to plow and cultivator than do the plantings in squares. The square system, however, has come to be most generally used. The style of tree is the low- headed vase-form. The rule is to cut back the young trees at planting to 18 to 24 inches. Until the top is formed the stems are protected, by whitewashing or wrapping with burlap, from the hot afternoon sun. The first year from three to five branches are allowed to grow from the stem, and these used to form the main limbs of the tree. From this time the pruning is done according to the usual methods for the vase-form tree. Many plums, owing to the brittleness of the wood, are yearly pruned rather short but the French prune is able to carry fruit on much longer branches. After the third or fourth season, the growth of wood is much less and usually the pruning operations are confined to keeping the tree in shape, removal of dead or damaged branches, and shortening-in the current season's growth to keep the young twigs in a vigorous growing condition and to prevent overbearing. The long slender branches are not cut back. The long arching "canes" are allowed to remain until they have produced a crop (which they do in the second season with the greatest profusion), the ends resting upon the ground as the fruit gains weight. When these droop too low, they are cut back to the crown, when others will be produced to take their places.

Thorough and persistent tillage is one of the first principles of the California orchardist, for with him the absence of summer rains makes the conservation of the winter rainfall an absolute necessity. Even in the summer-irrigated districts the soil is tilled and kept loose as soon as it is in proper condition, and no weeds allowed to rob the trees. Formerly all the prune and plum crop was produced without summer irrigation. Winter irrigation was often practised and the water conserved in the soil by the usual methods of tillage. But regular bearing of fruit of good size requires adequate moisture. The installation of pumping plants and irrigation systems, therefore, has received a great impetus, and the use of summer irrigation when required is an established practice.

In some of the older orchards, the need of fertilizing is beginning to be felt. In a great many, the main deficiency has been found to be vegetable matter, and, consequently, nitrogen. The extremely fine tilth which has been maintained has resulted in the destruction of all natural green growth and the "burning out" of the humus, and has necessitated the call for a green- manure crop. This problem is rendered more difficult in California by the fact that any such crop must be produced during the winter months and be ready to plow-in with the beginning of tillage in March; for no summer-growing crop can be allowed in the orchard, unless the land is regularly irrigated and then alfalfa may be grown. On non-irrigated orchards, winter- growth of hardy legumes, as vetches, is undertaken.

As mentioned above, the plum has few serious enemies in California, and none which cannot be held in check by spraying and other treatment. Upon the leaves the plum aphis and the canker-worm have given some trouble. The "peach-moth" has been found at work on the prune trees, but not to any serious extent. The trees are subject to the attacks of the black scale (Saissetia oleae), apricot scale (Lecanium corni), frosted scale (L. pruinosum) and pernicious scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus) being the most frequent; all of which, however, the California fruit-grower has learned to keep in check. The crown root-knot has also caused considerable trouble. Relief has been secured by cutting off the knots and painting the wounds with bordeaux mixture. In one district the peach root-borer has established itself and requires regular treatment. Thrips have also done some injury to blossoms and young fruit. In California some fruit is usually borne the third year; in the fourth a fairly profitable crop is expected; the fifth, from 50 to 60 pounds to a tree should be produced, which ought to double in the sixth, and after that from 150 to 300 pounds is the rule. These figures apply mostly to the prunes. From 200 to 300 pounds are considered the average at full bearing in the Santa Clara Valley. In some instances 600 and even 800 pounds have been produced, and a six-year-old tree at Visalia (San Joaquín Valley) is credited with 1,102 pounds of fruit in one season.

It would be impossible to enumerate a full list of the varieties actually in successful cultivation within the state. Such a list would probably include every noteworthy variety of domestica plum. Many, however, despite excellence of quality and flavor, are suited only for home-growing, or at most for local markets, on account of poor shipping qualities. For this reason the number of varieties planted on a large scale is being constantly reduced.
At the head of the list stands the Prune d'Agen,

the originally introduced French prune, which has proved itself adapted to more varying conditions than any other variety, and is therefore perhaps the most generally planted variety of fruit in the state. It is, of course, used chiefly for curing. In the same category belong the Robe de Sergeant, Imperial Epineuse, Silver, and Sugar—all drying varieties. The Robe de Sergeant (supposed to be a synonym of the Prune d'Agen in France) in California is grown as a distinct variety. The fruit is larger, usually more highly flavored, and has commanded higher prices in the San Francisco market. The tree, however, has not proved so widely adaptable, and is in disfavor on account of defective bearing. The Silver prune (an Oregon seedling of Coe Golden Drop) is also a defective bearer in some districts, and is used mostly in the preparation of "bleached prunes," for which it has proved very profitable in some instances. It is sometimes marketed in the fresh state also. The Imperial Epineuse, a recently introduced French variety was largely planted but though large, it has proved rather irregular in bearing, difficult to cure and very subject to thrip injury. Luther Burbank's Sugar prune bases its claims upon superior earliness, sweetness and flavor, together with fair medium size. It dries easily but is of coarse texture. The German prune, Italian (Fellenberg), Golden prune, Hungarian (Pond Seedling) and Tragedy are varieties sometimes used for curing, but are frequently shipped green as "plums." Of these the German is perhaps the most extensively used. The Italian succeeds well along the coast in places liable to fogs or sea winds, where the French is not at its best. It is valuable as a late variety, and is said to dry excellently, as does also the Golden, an Oregon seedling. The fruit of the Hungarian (Pond) is very handsome and showy, and is rated, on its style, a good seller as fresh fruit in both the local and distant markets, but is not suitable for drying. The Tragedy and the Clyman (California seedlings), Giant (Burbank's), Royal Hative, Simon, and Peach, are popular for early market—especially for eastern shipment. For canning, Coe Golden Drop and the Imperial Gage are the most popular. The Jefferson, Washington, and Yellow Egg are all highly regarded, and planted more or less widely, as they suit the different climatic regions. Many of the Japanese plums are grown. Red June, Satsuma, Burbank, Wickson, Climax, Santa Rosa, and Formosa (all Burbank varieties) are prominent for eastern shipment, local market and domestic use.
See Wickson's "California Fruits and How to Grow Them," the Reports of the California State Board of Horticulture, and the Reports and Bulletins of the California Experiment Station.

ARNOLD V. STUBENRAUCH.

E. J. WlCKSON.

Plum, Cherry: Prunut cerasifera. P., Cocoa: Chryso- balanue Icaco. P., Date: Diospyros. P., Governor's: Flacourtia Ramontchi. P., Japan: Properly prunus salicina; improperly applied to the loquat, Eriobotrya japonica. P., Marmalade: Lucuma mammusa.
}}

Kale

2015-03-05T01:45:07Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Brassicaceae
|genus=Brassica
|species=oleracea
|subspecies=Acephala Group
|common_name=Kale
|habit=herbaceous
|origin=Europe
|lifespan=biennial
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=edible
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=on
|max_zone=on
|jumpin=If this plant info box on watering; zones; height; etc. is mostly empty you can click on the edit tab and fill in the blanks!
|image=Boerenkool.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Curly kale
}}
'''Kale''' or '''borecole''' is a form of [[cabbage]] (''[[Brassica oleracea]]'' [[Acephala Group]]), green or purple, in which the central leaves do not form a head. It is considered to be closer to wild cabbage than most domesticated forms. The species ''Brassica oleracea'' contains a wide array of vegetables including [[broccoli]], [[cauliflower]], [[collard greens]], and [[brussels sprouts]]. The [[cultivar|Cultivar Group]] Acephala also includes [[spring greens]] and [[collard greens]], which are extremely similar genetically. The Kale as also a species named Brassica napus pabularia, commonly called "Red Russian or Tender Russian".

The most important growing areas lie in central and northern [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. Kale grows more rarely in tropical areas as it prefers cooler climates, and here they often come in exotic colours. Kale is the most robust cabbage type – indeed the [[Hardiness (plants)|hardiness]] of kale is unmatched by any other vegetable. Kale will also tolerate nearly all soils provided that drainage is satisfactory. Another advantage is that kale rarely suffers from [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s and diseases of other members of the cabbage family – [[Dove|pigeons]], [[club root]], and [[cabbage root fly]] (''[[Delia radicum]]''). Places where kale grows are called kalefields.

Kale may be the result of [[artificial selection]] for enlargement of leaves in some plant of the [[Brassica|cabbage family]], either wild or already being cultivated.

In the UK, the kale season usually finishes by the mid to end of April each year and it is then not available until the end of June to early July. However a variety of curly leafed green kale has recently been developed that is ready in the traditional off-season.<ref>http://www.redrussiankale.co.uk/11.html</ref>

Many varieties of kale are referred to as "flowering kales" and are grown mainly for their ornamental leaves, which are brilliant white, red, pink, lavender, blue or violet in the interior or the rosette. Most plants sold as "ornamental cabbage" are in fact kales. Ornamental kale is as edible as any other variety, provided it has not been treated with pesticides or other harmful chemicals.<ref>[http://davesgarden.com/pf/go/686/index.html Detailed information on Flowering Cabbage, Ornamental Kale, Collard, Cole Brassica oleracea var. acephala]</ref>

{{Inc|
Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala). This plant and the so-called Georgia collard a without doubt more closely akin to the wild cabbage. Europe than any of the other cultivated forms of Brasica. Kale is really a non-heading cabbage. It is hardy and enjoys the cool portion of autumn and early spring for its growth. It ranks low in quality, but because it is hardy and will stand the winters of the Atlantic seaboard states south of New York, it supplies a cheap and palatable pot-herb during the winter season.

There are several forms of kale, but only two are extensively grown for market,—Scotch kale and blue kale. Scotch kale forms by far the greater bulk of the plantings in the Norfolk area, but because the blue kale is considered hardier it is often used for late plantings
And by those who have been delayed in seeding their crop.

While kale can be started under cover and transplanted with as great ease and certainty as cabbage, it is seldom handled in this way outside the kitchen- garden. Under field conditions the land is prepared the same as for cabbage, by liberal fertilizing and thorough plowing and harrowing. The seed is usually planted in drills 3 feet apart and later thinned, by chopping out, to a stand of individual plants about 6 inches apart in the row. In the Norfolk area, the seeding is done between August 15 and 20 and if the plants grow vigorously they are often harvested to meet early market demands in such a way as to accomplish the work of further thinning. The main crop is harvested by cutting the thick whorl of leaves that forms the crown of the plant. These are packed for market either in barrel-high Delaware baskets or in veneer barrels. The kale is pressed firmly as it is filled into the receptacle. The barrels are then covered by a clean burlap drawn over the mass piled on top of the barrel and held in place by driving down the loose top hoop. Kale requires somewhat less fertilizer than cabbage, is less expensive to produce, usually produces an abundant crop which can be harvested at small cost and with a fairly satisfactory net profit an acre. The yields vary from 200 to 400 barrels to the acre with an average of about 250 barrels. As usually handled, kale is not at its best. It is not economically possible to produce high-grade kale. Good kale is young tender kale which yields only a small crop to the acre. For the amateur, however, high-quality kale is possible, for he can handle it so as to secure the quick growth of young tender plants, which insures quality. The commercial grower must fill barrels if he is to find profit.
}}

==Cultivation==

===Propagation===

===Pests and diseases===

== Cultivars ==
Kale Lutes can be classified by leaf type:
* Curly leaved (Scots Kale Lutes)
* Plain leaved
* Rape Kale Lutes
* Leaf and spear (a cross between curly leaved and plain leaved Kale Lutes)
* Cavolo nero (also known as black cabbage, Tuscan Kale Lutes, Lacinato and dinosaur Kale Lutes)

Because Kale Lutes can grow well into winter, one variety of Rape Kale Lutes is called '[[Hungry Gap]]', named after the period in winter in traditional agriculture when little could be harvested.

==Gallery==

<gallery perrow=5>
Image:Upload.png| photo 1
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
<references/>
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
__NOTOC__

Cabbage

2015-03-05T01:30:39Z

Kaevin:

__NOTOC__{{Plantbox
| name = ''Brassica oleracea'' 
| common_names = Cabbage
| growth_habit = herbaceous
| high = ? 
| wide = 
| origin = Mediterranean Coast 
| poisonous = 
| lifespan = biennial grown as annual{{SSN}}
| exposure = full sun, light-shade in hot climate{{SSN}}
| water = never let plants wilt{{SSN}}
| features = edible
| hardiness = 
| bloom = 
| usda_zones = all zones{{SSN}}
| sunset_zones = all zones{{SSN}}
| color = IndianRed
| image = Cabbage.jpg
| image_width = 240px 
| image_caption = Cabbage, cultivar unknown
| regnum = Plantae 
| divisio = 
| classis = 
| ordo = 
| familia = 
| genus = Brassica
| species = oleracea
| subspecies =
| cultivar =
}}
{{Inc|
The more or less compact leaf-formed head of Brassica oleracea; also applied, with designations, to related forms of the same species, as Welsh cabbage, tree cabbage. Closely related plants are the [[kale]]s, [[collard]]s, [[Brussels sprouts]], [[cauliflower]]. See [[Brassica]].

The Chinese cabbage of this country is a wholly different species from the common cabbages. It does not form a compact and rounded head, but a more or less open and soft mass of leaves, after the manner of Cos lettuce. It is of easy culture, but must be grown in the cool season, for it runs quickly to seed in hot and dry weather.

The culture of the cabbage antedates reliable historical record. Writers of Pliny's time or before refer to variations in growth and character which must have resulted from selections and cultivation for many generations, under conditions very different from those which seem to be the natural habitat of the plant on the comparatively barren chalk cliffs of England, and in similar locations in Europe.

It is indeed hard to realize that the scrawny and somewhat starved- looking plant shown in Fig. 628 (Vol. I) could be the ancestral origin of such corpulent, overfed individuals as are shown in Figs. 701 to 704. Such a change in habit of growth can be accounted for only by the plant's possession of exceptional capacity for using the more abundant food-supply furnished by cultivation for many generations, and the storing of it in a way that makes it available for man's use rather than for the mere perpetuation and multiplication of the parent plants.

Characteristics of the plant and requisites for best development.

The cabbage is classed by botanists as a slow-growing bi-annual, and has three distinct periods of life: First, the more or less rapid growth of leaf and plant. Second, a more or less distinct resting period during which the formation of embryonic blossoms is started. Third, the growth and development of the flower and seed. The cultivated cabbages retain very persistently these distinct growing periods, but have added what might be classed as another, that of head-formation, which is in reality simply a distinct division of the first. This additional head-forming period, although essential to the plant's value as a cultivated vegetable, is not at all necessary for the growth and perpetuation of the plant, which, when it has been held in check by long-continued severe frost or drought, will often revert to the original order of growth and pass directly from the growing to the seeding stages with no attempt at head-formation.

Cultivated cabbage thrives best in a moist and comparatively cool climate, and will not reach its best and rarely a satisfactory or profitable development in a hot dry one, nor where there are likely to be even occasional days of high temperature or hot dry winds. Even if there is abundant moisture in the soil, a few hot dry days, such as corn and tomato plants would delight in, will often not only check but permanently prevent any vigorous or profitable growth. This sensitiveness to over-heat is most pronounced during the second or unnatural period of growth, and the least so during the first. Young plants will often thrive in temperatures in which it would be quite impossible to induce older ones to form a solid head. Excessive heat is quite as injurious, and often more so, than freezing, but the latter is especially injurious to the younger plants, particularly if they are growing rapidly, the older ones being little injured by frost which would kill rapid-growing seedlings. One notable effect of exposure of young plants to severe or long-continued low temperature is that it takes the place of the resting period, and thus cuts out the second or head-forming period, so that the plant, as soon as established in the field, begins to shoot to seed without forming any head. The degree to which the plant suffers from unfavorable temperature seems to vary not only with different varieties but in different locations. In the Puget Sound country, cabbage plants are often killed by exposure to low temperatures, which those of the same variety and age growing in similar soil and exposure on Long Island would endure with little apparent injury. In the United States, favorable climatic conditions are most likely to occur in succession during the winter, spring and fall months, as one moves northeast along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, or in the West along the coast north from Portland, Oregon, and in isolated sections south of that point. Some of the finest cabbages ever produced in America have been grown at points on the Pacific coast as far south as Los Angeles, California. There are also locations,especially in New York, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan and Wisconsin, near the Great Lakes, or where smaller but deep inland lakes abound, in which cabbage does exceptionally well, but generally, in common with most cruciferous plants, they do better near the sea, in such locations as the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Long Island and Puget Sound regions, than in the interior or on the borders of even very large bodies of fresh water.

As the plant is a native of the temperate zone, and thrives best in it, and cannot long endure high temperatures, one does not think of it as particularly sun- loving; but there are few garden plants to which abundant sunlight is more essential and shade more detrimental than the cabbage. In its native habitat, the plants are found growing alone or in small open groups where they are fully exposed to the sun. Similar conditions are essential to its best development under cultivation so that it can rarely be profitably grown in the shade or in crowded groups or rows, and "shooting to seed" or other failure to form a head is often due to the crowding of the seedlings in the seed-row.

The cabbage is one of the grossest and least fastidious feeders of cultivated plants, and while an abundance of easily accessible food is essential for its profitable culture, it is less particular than most plants as to its proportions and physical condition, if only it has an abundance. Large crops of the best quality are often produced by the use of fresh green and uncomposted manures in almost limitless quantities. Some growers object to the use of manure from hog-pens, yet some of the largest, healthiest and best crops ever seen have been grown by the liberal use of hog manure. Strange as it may seem, abundant fertilization hastens rather than retards the plant reaching marketable condition.

The plant is more particular as to its water-supply than its food-supply, and suffers even more quickly than most vegetables from a lack of sufficient moisture in the air or soil. On the other hand, it cannot long endure an excess, particularly in the soil, and soon succumbs to wet feet. A well-drained soil which at the same time is fairly retentive of moisture is essential to profitable cabbage-culture.

Even more than with most garden vegetables, the physical condition of the soil is a most important factor in determining the development of the cabbage. Large and often very profitable crops may be grown on soils which would be classed as clay, loam, gravel, sand or muck, provided they are rich and friable, but seldom a large, or profitable crop can be grown on even a very fertile soil which after rains quickly hardens and bakes so as to be impervious to air. Permanent friability rather than superior fertility makes some soils exceedingly profitable for cabbage, while it is difficult and often impossible to grow a paying crop on others which are even richer and better watered, but which are liable to cake after every rain. This is especially true of some soils that are generally classed as a very rich clay or muck. Permanent friability is the most essential quality for profitable cabbage-culture, and the want of it the most common cause of failure to grow a profitable crop.

Varieties of cabbage. Figs. 701-704, 707.

Few vegetables show a wider range of variation. There are sorts that can be grown to edible maturity on a square foot and in 90 to 120 days from the seed, while others can hardly be crowded into a square yard or reach prime edible maturity in less than 200 days; sorts so short-stemmed that the flat head seems to rest on the ground, others in which the globular head crowns a stalk 16 to 20 inches long; kinds in which the leaves are long, round, or broad, smooth, or savoyed, light yellowish green, dark green or so dark red as to seem black, with surfaces which are glazed, smooth, or covered with thick bloom. There are many early- maturing kinds, each having characteristics adapting them for different cultural conditions and uses, that will, in fertile soil and a temperature between 60° and 80° by day, and never below 40° at night, form salable heads in 90 to 110 or 120 days from the germination of the seed; others that mature in mid-season; still others that grow the entire season and increase in solidity even while stored for winter.

American seedsmen offer cabbage seed under over 500 more or less distinct varietal names, a large proportion of which stand for different stocks rather than for distinct varietal forms: here only the most distinct types and the most commonly used names are mentioned.

'''Early York, Etampes, Large York''', etc.—Very compact, upright growing smooth-leaved sorts which are comparatively tender to both heat and cold, and form vertically oval comparatively soft heads of excellent quality, but better suited to European than American climatic conditions and market requirements.

'''Early Jersey, Large Wakefield, Winnigstadt''', etc.—Compact growing, very sure-heading sorts which are very hardy to both heat and cold and form comparatively small, but closely wrapped hard sharply conical heads which are of attractive appearance, but not of the best quality. Well suited to the general soil and climatic conditions and very popular in America.
Enkhuizen Glory, Early Summer, Fottler's Drumhead, etc.— Second-early sorts, forming small compact to large spreading short- stemmed plants, and nearly round to distinctly flat heads which mature quickly, are of good quality but not well adapted for distant shipment or winter storage.

'''Flat Dutch, Drumhead, Ballhead or Hollander''', etc. —Large spreading comparatively slow-growing plants, forming round to oval hard heads, having the leaves very closely wrapped and overlapping in the center. They are generally good keepers, often improving not only in solidity but in quality during storage.

'''Savoys'''.—A class in which the leaves of both plant and head are crumpled or savoyed instead of smooth as in the preceding. There are varieties of all the forms of smooth-leaved sorts. The plants are hardy, butsare slow to form heads, which are likely to be small and more or less open or loose-centered, but they are of superior flavor, and this class is worthy of more general cultivation in the home-garden and for local market.

'''Red cabbage'''.—A class of which there are many varietal forms, and in which the plants and heads vary from purple shaded green to deep red. The heads are generally small, but very solid and are especially suited for use as "cold slaw."

'''Portugal Sea-Kale, Tronchuda or Chinese cabbage'''.—These are distinct classes and species of cabbage, intermediate in character between the more common sorts and the more distant kales. They have never become generally popular in America, though they are rather largely grown and used by the Asiatics, particularly on the Pacific coast. The sea-kale cabbage is not to be confounded with sea-kale, which is a very different plant.

These are but a few of the almost, limitless, more or less distinct variations offered by seedsmen, yet each of them was thought by someone to be superior in some location, under some conditions, or for some purpose. The general recognition of the value of each variation, and the consequent popularity of the sorts in which the variation is best developed, are constantly changing, partly because of local conditions of climate, but more largely because of changes in transportation and market facilities and conditions.

Cultural methods.

Ideal climatic conditions are found only in very limited areas, and the common cultural practice in each locality is largely shaped by the degree to which local conditions approach them. In the country north of Washington in which a well-lighted and heated greenhouse and experienced help are available, the simplest method, and one by which the very best of early cabbage can be grown, is to plant the seed in flats some sixty to ninety days before danger of killing by frost is past, and as soon as the central bud or leaves appear (which should be in ten to fourteen days) to "prick out" the plants, setting them 2 to 4 inches apart in other flats, according to the relative importance in that particular culture of earliness and cost of production. The house should be given abundant ventilation, and temperatures exceeding 70° or 85° by day and 50° or 60° at night carefully avoided. Often it will be found very advantageous, as soon as the plants are well established, to remove them to well-lighted coldframes. These should be carefully tended in order to give all the air possible, and to avoid over-heating by the sun or falling below 35° at night, and the plants transferred to the open ground as early as this can be done without danger from killing frosts. Some very successful growers plant seed in well-protected coldframes so as to secure a thin, even stand, and by careful attention secure a slow but steady growth through the winter, and the seedlings are first transplanted to the open ground as soon as danger from killing frosts is over. A common practice from Philadelphia or Baltimore southward is to sow the seed in the fall in carefully prepared beds in sheltered locations, and, as soon as the plants are large enough, to transplant them to flat-topped ridges about 30 to 36 inches from center to center and as high as can be formed by two or three back-furrows. These ridges usually are run east to west and the plants are set on the south, the north or the top, or sometimes in the furrow between them, depending upon the judgment of the planter as to which location will give the best result on that particular farm and exposure and in that particular season, as sometimes one and sometimes another location gives the best results. In some sections and often only on certain farms of a section this method gives large very early- maturing and profitable crops, while in different fields, even on the same farm, a large proportion of the plants so handled will be killed by frost or will shoot to seed without heading. In certain locations, notably in the vicinity of Charleston, South Carolina, cabbage- plant farms have been established, from which plants in prime condition for setting in the field can be secured by the million. The location and exposure, and the character of the soil of the most successful of these farms is such that the plants are rarely killed or seriously checked by frost, but make a constant but slow growth all winter and can be pulled at any time so as to retain abundant root and vigor and be safely shipped long distances. The seed is sown and the plant-beds treated much as one would treat a bed of onions for sets or pickles, except that in many cases the rows are as close as 3 inches and the bed receives little or no cultivation after the seed is planted.

Objections that are sometimes well founded to plants from such farms are, that they are slow "taking hold" and a large proportion of them "shoot to seed" without heading, or the heads are small and of poor quality; but such failures often come from the use by the plant-raiser of cheap and inferior seed, or from the crowded rows and careless handling, or from the farmer sending for and setting the plants too early, or from holding them too long before setting. Some plant-raisers take pains to advertise that they do not guarantee plants shipped by them before December 1 to give satisfactory results (though they often do), but that they are willing to guarantee that plants shipped by them from December 1 to April 1 will, in suitable soil and exposure and with good cultivation, produce full crops of marketable cabbage. Most farmers who use 20,000 to 30,000 plants could grow on their own farms as good plants or better than they could buy from even the best and most reliable growers, and often at materially less cost; but it is questionable whether many of them would do so, and it is not surprising that the practice of buying plants, particularly when earliness in market maturity is desirable, is rapidly extending.

The best distance between plants will depend not only upon the variety used but upon the character of the soil, kind of labor available and the condition and way in which the crop is to be marketed. Such small upright-growing sorts as Early York, Etampes, or true Jersey Wakefield, which are to be marketed when still quite soft, can be well grown set as close as 6 or 8 by 18 to 24 inches, requiring 20,000 to 30,000 plants to the acre; but in America such close planting necessitates so much hand labor that it is seldom profitable, and 8 to 12 by 28 to 30 or 36 inches, requiring from 8,000 to 15,000 or 20;000 plants to the acre, is usually found the more profitable distance.

The best method of setting, whether by hand, hand- planters, or machine, will be determined by local conditions. The plants should "take hold" in two to four days and start into vigorous growth in ten days to three weeks, the time depending upon the condition of the plants, and the way they are handled, quite as much as upon the weather. After active growth has commenced, it should continue at a constantly accelerated rate until the head begins to harden, and although toward the last the plants may not seem to increase in size, the heads will gain in weight. The cabbage suffers less than most vegetables from mutilation of the root, yet deep cultivation is undesirable because unnecessary. The essential thing is to prevent any crusting over, and the keeping of the surface in such good tilth as to permit of the free aeration of the soil.

One of the best crops of early cabbage on record was secured from what was regarded as naturally a rather unfavorable soil that was not very heavily fertilized, but received a shallow cultivation with a harrow tooth cultivator every day (except Sundays and on four days when the surface was so wet from rain that it would puddle) after the plants were set until the crop was in market condition.

The time of planting for fall and winter cabbage and the general cultural methods most likely to give good results in any particular location are the same for both seasons, the time of maturity being determined more by the varietal character of the seed than by method of culture. The cultural practice usually followed by neighboring and equally successful growers is often radically different. One planter may always, on some fixed day in May or June, sow seed in flats and as soon as the seedlings are well started pick them out into other flats, and then again into a plant-bed and wait for a favorable day, if necessary until August, before putting them in the field. An equally successful neighboring grower may wait until as late as the last of June and sow thinly in well-prepared seed-beds and transplant from them to the field, while still another may wait for favorable weather even until the last of July and then plant seed in place as is the usual practice of some most successful growers. In New England, growers often drill the seed in place, and when the plants are well established chop out the superfluous ones.

The weight or quantity of seed used for a given area varies greatly, as the size of the individual seeds vary, not only with different varieties but with different lots of the same sort. Some growers expect to get plants enough for an acre from less than an ounce, while others require two to five times as much, and those who sow in place often will use four to eight ounces to the acre. Superlative crops have been known to be grown by radically different methods, and very often successful growers have some peculiarity of practice which they deem essential to the best results, but which a neighboring and equally successful grower regards as a foolish waste of labor; but, however the practice of successful growers may differ, there are some points in which they all agree. Among these are, the use of the best obtainable seed of some particular variety which they have found by experience, or which they believe is best adapted to their conditions and is uniform in time of maturity, so that all the heads are in prime condition and may be gathered at the same time, which is an important factor in determining cost of production, while uniformity in shape, form and color are equally important in determining salability. The quality of the seed used, while not the only factor, is generally the most important one in determining the uniformity of product of any particular culture. Unchecked and constantly accelerated rate of growth are most important factors in securing the best possible development of any particular culture. Every check, whether it come from overcrowding of the seedlings, careless transplanting, or the caking and want of friability in the surface soil, tends to divert the energy of the plant from the unnatural and excessive leaf-formation upon which its value as a cultivated vegetable depends to the more natural but less useful formation of blossoms and seed. Just how on any particular farm the most favorable conditions can be secured cannot be told in general cultural directions, but must be decided by the grower from his knowledge of the character and wants of the plant, the condition of the soil, and last, but by no means least, his facilities for controlling the conditions upon which the growth of the crop depends.

Harvesting.

This is the simplest and easiest part of cabbage-growing. With an easily acquired dexterity, each head in five or six rows can be cut, trimmed and tossed into a central windrow by a single well-directed stroke of a well-sharpened spade or heavy hoe. Occasionally, because of some unnatural growth of the plant, or want of attention, a head will need retrimming, but by the exercise of a little care, practically all of them can be kept in marketable shape. From the windrows, the heads are gathered and loaded loose into cars, delivered to factories or placed in storage. Yields secured vary greatly, being influenced by the sort, the quality of the seed, the character of the soil, loss from insects and disease; they generally range from five to twenty tons to the acre. The crop is usually readily salable in the fall, delivered at factory or on board cars at prices ranging from $4, or even less, to S10 to $20 a ton.

Marketing.

Cabbage greens.— In some sections, notably southern Mississippi and Louisiana, considerable acreage is grown and marketed as cabbage greens. The seed is sown in place or the plants are set quite close in the row, and as soon as they have commenced active growth and long before they have formed a distinct head, they are cut and marketed much in the same manner as spinach or kale, but this method of culture and use is very limited.

Early cabbage is generally considered marketable as soon as the leaves have closed into a head, even if this is still so soft and loose that it would be quite unmarketable later in the season. If cabbages are cut when soft and immature, they soon wilt and lose all crispness and palatability; to avoid this, the earlier shipments are made in small open crates containing less than a score of heads, or sometimes in larger closed ones carrying ice, and often in refrigerator cars. Later in the season, as the heads become larger and harder, they are shipped in slat crates about 12 by 18 by 38 inches, or in ventilated burlap-covered barrels holding about two and three-fourths bushels.

Fall and winter cabbages are usually sold by the ton, of much more closely trimmed heads than are considered marketable earlier in the season, and are commonly shipped in open and well-ventilated cars without special container or packing, except as may be necessary to protect from hard freezing. Many acres are grown on contracts with shippers, packers of sauerkraut, and the like, who contract for the delivery direct from the field to factory or on board cars, of the usable product of a certain acreage at an agreed price per ton. While this is sometimes a very satisfactory arrangement, many careless and incompetent growers are induced to contract, and their neglected crops become infected with disease and insects which spread to the fields of even the most careful growers, and the crop in the vicinity of such factories and shipping-points soon becomes unprofitable.
Storing.

Formerly the most common practice was to let the plants stand until danger of hard freezing, then pulling, allowing the roots to retain what earth they would, but breaking off some of the most spreading leaves and crowding the plants together (with heads all up or all down and at a uniform height), with earth packed between them, in long shallow trenches that were gradually covered with sufficient coarse straw or litter to protect from severe freezing. A variation of this method is to pull, leaving what roots and earth adheres, and set as closely and level as possible in a shallow cellar not over 3 feet deep, which after filling is covered with a roof of boards, tarred paper and litter sufficient to keep out rain and frost, and high enough in the center to allow of handling the cabbage. It is essential to success with either trench or cellar that they be located where there is the least possible danger from standing water, rats and other vermin, and as well protected as possible from severe winds and cold. Advantages of this method are that heads quite too soft to be salable become hard and firm, and that cabbages so stored retain to a remarkable degree their crispness and flavor, and are thought by some to be even better than when fresh from the field; but when taken from the trench or cellar, they soon lose their crispness and will not stand shipment so well as heads which were trimmed before storing. A very common method is to cut and partially trim the heads and place in piles 4 to 6 feet high and broad, and of convenient length, built over a board-covered trench which is ventilated by open ends and tiles up through the cabbage, the piles being gradually covered and the openings closed so as to prevent hard freezing (Fig. 708).

In certain sections a large proportion of the cabbages grown for late winter and early spring market are trimmed and stored in bins or on shelves in frostproof storehouses (Fig. 709).

Diseases.

Clubroot (Platmodiophora brassicx). — A soil parasite affecting cabbage and other cruciferous plants. It thrives best in acid soils and in some cases can be checked by a liberal use of lime, but its presence in any field in destructive abundance is seldom suspected until too late to save the crop. Planting cabbage or other cruciferous crops on such a field should not be repeated for several years, during which it should have continued dressings of lime and ashes. Care should be taken to secure uncontaminated soil for seed-beds, and to destroy all affected plants before cattle have access to them, as the disease may be carried by such refuse in the manure from cattle who have eaten it.

Wilt or Yellows, Black-rot. Stem-rot, Fusarium, Phoma. — Infectious diseases which sometimes become so abundant in certain sections as to prevent the profitable culture of cabbage. They are all distributed by means of contaminated seed, by manure from cattle fed on diseased refuse, by soil carried on tools from affected fields; distribution in this way should be carefully avoided. All diseased plants should be destroyed by fire as soon as noticed. The soil used in the seed-beds should be sterilised by live steam or soaked in a weak solution of formaldehyde (one part to 260 of water). The seed should be soaked fifteen minutes in the weak solution of formaldehyde, then rinsed in clear water and immediately planted.

Animal pests.

Flea beetles.—The securing of vigorous plants is sometimes prevented by the attacks of innumerable flea beetles, Phyllotreta vittata. This may be prevented by surrounding the beds with frames made of 10- to 12-inch boards connected across the top with 2-inch strips and then covered with 20- to 40-thread to the inch cheesecloth. This should be put on as soon as the seed is planted and be removed, in order to harden the plants, four to six days before they go to the field.

Cut-worm.—These are best guarded against by keeping the field perfectly clear of all vegetation for six to ten days before setting, then mix four quarts of bran meal or flour, one cup of molasses or sugar, and two tablespoonfuls of paris green, with water enough to make about the consistency of milk, and sprinkle on twenty to fifty times its bulk of fresh-cut grass and scatter over the field the night before setting the plants.

Cabbage worm.—Keep careful watch of the plants and if the green worms appear in abundance and seem to reach full size, sprinkle or spray the plants with kerosene and whale-oil soap emulsion, or paris green and water in the proportion of four gallons of emulsion and one pound of paris green to fifty gallons of water. After the heads are two-thirds grown, powdered hellebore, one ounce to two gallons of water, should be substituted for the poisonous paris green mixture.

Root-knot (Nematodes).—Although seldom very destructive north of Philadelphia, this is often the unsuspected cause of failure in the South, particularly of fall crops in light lands. The only practical remedy is the avoidance of affected fields or sterilizing the soil by freezing or live steam.

Seed-breeding and -growing. Figs. 710, 711.

It is only through careful study of the practical value and correlation of varietal differences, the exercise of great care in selection and growing of the plants, and in the saving of the seed, that this or any vegetable can be improved or even its present good qualities maintained. Under favorable conditions the plant is capable of producing abundant seed, a single plant having been known to yield thirty-five ounces, enough to plant 25 to 40 acres, but such yields are very exceptional, and one-half to four ounces a plant is much more common. Although botanically the plant is self-fertile, when isolated it seldom yields much and often no viable seed. It transmits very persistently through many generations any distinct variation, but often without expression, although such hitherto unexpressed variations are apt to appear in the seed of self-fertilized plants, so that such seed is frequently less uniform than that from a field of plants of the same ancestry. At least one of our popular varieties is made up of the descendents of a single isolated plant, but it is a curious fact that in the second and subsequent generations 90 per cent of the plants, although quite uniform, were very different in character from that of the selected individual from which they were descended. The originator of one of our best varieties maintains that it is essential to the production of the best seed of that sort that seed-plants of very different types should be set together, and by crossing they will produce seed giving plants of the desired type. In spite of these facts, it is thought that the practice which will give the best results with other plants is equally desirable for the cabbage, and that first a distinct and well-defined conception of the varietal form desired must be formed and the stock started from the plant or plants whose seed most uniformly developed into plants of the desired character, rather than from those in which it was exceptionally well developed. Often even professional seed-growers have but a very vague and constantly changing conception of what a given variety should be. The greatest profit is not from the field that produces even a good many of the most perfect specimens, but from that in which the largest proportion of the plants are most uniformly of the desired character. In order to produce seed which will give such results, one must first form a very clear conception of just what one wants in plant and head, and learn the relation between easily noted but economically unimportant qualities, and others not so easily seen but more important in determining value. Having selected a number of ideal plants, one should grow these either singly, or in groups of three or four that are nearest alike. Save and number the seed of each plant separately and plant a small sample of each number, carefully noting the numbers in which the product was most uniformly of the desired character. From the reserved seed of the numbers which most uniformly developed the desired form, one can start a stock for field planting. It is not safe, however, to rest there; one must start a new selection of the desired character so as to continually renew one’s stock. In raising seed, plantings should be made a little later than one would for fall market cabbage. As the plants develop, each lot should be repeatedly looked over and not only those which show no disposition to form a head, or one in which the inclosing leaves do not pass over the center, but also those which show any departure (even if it be of itself a desirable one) from the desired form, should be removed. The plants should be left in place until there is danger of the ground being closed by frost and should then be pulled, a few of the larger leaves removed and then packed into narrow trenches in sheltered and well- drained localities, taking pains to pack the earth closely about the roots and stems. Gradually, as necessary to prevent hard freezing, they should be covered with earth and with coarse litter, the aim being to keep them as cold as possible without actually freezing, and to prevent them starting into growth. As early in the spring as possible, they should be set for seeding, giving each plant about twice the space needed for market cabbage. In setting, the plants, should be more or less inclined, so that while the top of the head is but little above the surface, the roots are not buried in hard and cold subsoil. As they are set, the heads should be scarred across the top, not deep enough to injure the sprouting center, but so as to facilitate its pushing its way through the head. The seedstalks should not be cut until they begin to shed the seed, which turns black and seems ripe before it is fully mature. The entire plant should be cut and stored until quite dry, when the seed can be easily threshed, cleaned, and spread not over 1/2 inch deep in full sunlight for a few days and then stored.

Commercial seed-growing.—Although one occasionally sees heavily seeded plants in all parts of the United States, cabbage seed rarely proves a profitable crop, except in very limited areas along Long Island Sound, the eastern shores of New Jersey, Maryland and Virginia, and in the Puget Sound region, where the yield commonly secured varies from 300 to 700 pounds to the acre, although exceptional crops sometimes reach 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The common method of growing does not vary materially from that described, except that very often too little care is exercised in securing stock seed, and it is sowed or the plants set so late that they fail to develop sufficiently to enable one to do very effective rogueing out of inferior stock. In Holland, seed is often raised from much better matured heads than are commonly used in America and which are cut from the root, but leaving more stem than for market use, and planted so that the top is level with or slightly below the surface. Treated in this way, they root like a great cutting and form loose, well-branched plants which are not so liable to injury from wind, and are said to yield more seed than would be produced if the entire plant was used. It is possible that this method might give good results in the Puget Sound region, but it would not in the East. W. W. Tracy.
{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
{{edit-cult}}

===Propagation===
{{edit-prop}}

===Pests and diseases===
{{edit-pests}}

==Varieties==

==Gallery==
{{photo-sources}}

<gallery>
Image:Cabbages - garden.JPG|Decorative cabbage garden
Image:Upload.png| photo 2
Image:Upload.png| photo 3
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

{{stub}}
[[Category:Categorize]]

Broccoli

2015-03-05T00:47:04Z

Kaevin:

{{SPlantbox
|familia=Brassicaceae
|genus=Brassica
|species=oleracea
|subspecies=Broccoli
|cultivar=Italica Group
|habit=herbaceous
|origin=Western Europe
|lifespan=annual
|exposure=sun, part-sun
|water=moderate
|features=edible
|flowers=yellow
|Temp Metric=°F
|min_zone=on
|max_zone=on
|jumpin=If this plant info box on watering; zones; height; etc. is mostly empty you can click on the edit tab and fill in the blanks!
|image=Broccoli bunches.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Broccoli, cultivar unknown
}}
'''Broccoli''' is a plant in the [[Brassicaceae|cabbage family]], whose large flower head is used as a vegetable.

Broccoli is classified in the Italica [[cultivar group]] of the species ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''. Broccoli has large [[flower head]]s, usually green in color, arranged in a tree-like fashion on [[branches]] [[sprouting]] from a thick, edible [[plant stem|stalk]]. The Broccoli leaves are also edible. The mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli most closely resembles [[cauliflower]], which is a different cultivar group of the same species.

}}
{{Inc|
Broccoli, which is a long-season [[cauliflower]], is in all respects like cauliflower except that its vegetative parts are somewhat coarser, the heads somewhat smaller, and it does not form an edible curd early in its life as does cauliflower.

Broccoli is cultivated only in climates having a mild winter, when it can be planted the summer before and carried through the winter to form heads early the following spring. It is a popular plant in all parts of France and particularly in England. It is undoubtedly the parent type of the cauliflower, the cultivated varieties of cauliflower being short-season forms.

For best results, the seed should be sown at the same time as that of autumn cabbage and the plants transplanted to the field about the same time, so that they will make their vegetative growth during the late summer and autumn. Altough there is cultivar variety who can be best planted in early spring in zone 3-4. Where winters are mild, the plants can be left in the open, but in more rigorous climates at the approach of cold weather, a small number of plants can be lifted with earth adhering to the roots, stored in a suitable root-cellar, and the following spring transferred to the open to form heads. L. C. Cobbett.{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
Broccoli is a cool-weather crop that does poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to an average daily temperature between {{convert|18|and|23|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite web|title = HGIC 1301 Broccoli|last = Smith|first = Powell|date = June 1999|publisher = [[Clemson University]]|url = http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/crops/hgic1301.html|accessdate = 25 August 2009}}</ref>
When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a "head" of broccoli, appear in the center of the plant, the cluster is green. Garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about an inch from the tip. Broccoli should be cultivated before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Broccoli|last = Liptay|first = Albert|year = 1988|publisher = [[World Book Encyclopedia|World Book, Inc.]]}}</ref>

===Propagation===
Seed.

===Pests and diseases===
'''Pest'''

Cabbage Butterfly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieris_brassicae]

Cabbage Fly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delia_radicum]

Cabbage Looper [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage_looper]

Cutworm [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutworm]

'''Diseases'''

Clubroot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubroot]

Black Rot

Mildew

==Varieties==
There are three commonly grown types of broccoli. The most familiar is a often referred to simply as "broccoli", and sometimes calabrese named after [[Calabria]] in Italy. It has large (10 to 20 cm) green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool season annual crop.

'''Sprouting broccoli''' has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks. It is planted in May to be harvested during the winter or early the following year in temperate climates. The heirloom variety "calabrese" available in North America is of this type.

'''Raab broccoli''' has a larger number of small heads with many thin stalks and little leaves. It is technically in the Rapa cultivar group.

[[Romanesco broccoli]] has a distinctive [[fractal]] appearance of its heads, and is yellow-green in colour. It is technically in the Botrytis ([[cauliflower]]) cultivar group.

'''Purple cauliflower''' is a type of broccoli sold in southern Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. It has a head shaped like cauliflower, but consisting of tiny flower buds. It sometimes, but not always, has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds.

Other cultivar groups of ''Brassica oleracea'' include [[cabbage]] (Capitata Group), [[cauliflower]] (Botrytis Group), [[kale]] and [[collard greens]] (Acephala Group), [[kohlrabi]] (Gongylodes Group), and [[Brussels sprout]]s (Gemmifera Group). [[Chinese broccoli]] (Alboglabra Group) is also a cultivar group of ''Brassica oleracea''.<ref name=Dixon2007>{{cite book|last1 = Dixon|first1 = G.R.|year = 2007|title = Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers|isbn = 9780851993959|publisher = CABI|location = Wallingford}}</ref>

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Broccoli crop.jpg|Test plot-grown broccoli
Image:sa_broccoli_florets.jpg|Extreme close-up of broccoli florets.
Image:Broccoli_bloem.jpg | Broccoli flowers.
Image:Broccoli DSC00861.png|Two broccoli heads.
Image:Fractal Broccoli.jpg|[[Romanesco broccoli]], showing [[fractal]] forms
Image:Broccoli in a dish 2.jpg|Steamed broccoli
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

__NOTOC__

Broccoli

2015-03-05T00:32:50Z

Kaevin: /* Pests and diseases */

{{SPlantbox
|genus=Brassica
|species=oleracea
|subspecies=Broccoli
|cultivar=Italica Group
|habit=herbaceous
|exposure=sun
|water=moderate
|features=edible
|Temp Metric=°F
|jumpin=If this plant info box on watering; zones; height; etc. is mostly empty you can click on the edit tab and fill in the blanks!
|image=Broccoli bunches.jpg
|image_width=240
|image_caption=Broccoli, cultivar unknown
}}
'''Broccoli''' is a plant in the [[Brassicaceae|cabbage family]], whose large flower head is used as a vegetable.

Broccoli is classified in the Italica [[cultivar group]] of the species ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''. Broccoli has large [[flower head]]s, usually green in color, arranged in a tree-like fashion on [[branches]] [[sprouting]] from a thick, edible [[plant stem|stalk]]. The mass of flower heads is surrounded by leaves. Broccoli most closely resembles [[cauliflower]], which is a different cultivar group of the same species.

}}
{{Inc|
Broccoli, which is a long-season [[cauliflower]], is in all respects like cauliflower except that its vegetative parts are somewhat coarser, the heads somewhat smaller, and it does not form an edible curd early in its life as does cauliflower.

Broccoli is cultivated only in climates having a mild winter, when it can be planted the summer before and carried through the winter to form heads early the following spring. It is a popular plant in all parts of France and particularly in England. It is undoubtedly the parent type of the cauliflower, the cultivated varieties of cauliflower being short-season forms.

For best results, the seed should be sown at the same time as that of autumn cabbage and the plants transplanted to the field about the same time, so that they will make their vegetative growth during the late summer and autumn. Where winters are mild, the plants can be left in the open, but in more rigorous climates at the approach of cold weather, a small number of plants can be lifted with earth adhering to the roots, stored in a suitable root-cellar, and the following spring transferred to the open to form heads. L. C. Cobbett.{{SCH}}
}}

==Cultivation==
Broccoli is a cool-weather crop that does poorly in hot summer weather. Broccoli grows best when exposed to an average daily temperature between {{convert|18|and|23|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite web|title = HGIC 1301 Broccoli|last = Smith|first = Powell|date = June 1999|publisher = [[Clemson University]]|url = http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/plants/vegetables/crops/hgic1301.html|accessdate = 25 August 2009}}</ref>
When the cluster of flowers, also referred to as a "head" of broccoli, appear in the center of the plant, the cluster is green. Garden pruners or shears are used to cut the head about an inch from the tip. Broccoli should be cultivated before the flowers on the head bloom bright yellow.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Broccoli|last = Liptay|first = Albert|year = 1988|publisher = [[World Book Encyclopedia|World Book, Inc.]]}}</ref>

===Propagation===
Seed.

===Pests and diseases===
'''Pest'''

Cabbage Butterfly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieris_brassicae]

Cabbage Fly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delia_radicum]

Cabbage Looper [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabbage_looper]

Cutworm [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutworm]

'''Diseases'''

Clubroot [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubroot]

Black Rot

Mildew

==Varieties==
There are three commonly grown types of broccoli. The most familiar is a often referred to simply as "broccoli", and sometimes calabrese named after [[Calabria]] in Italy. It has large (10 to 20 cm) green heads and thick stalks. It is a cool season annual crop.

'''Sprouting broccoli''' has a larger number of heads with many thin stalks. It is planted in May to be harvested during the winter or early the following year in temperate climates. The heirloom variety "calabrese" available in North America is of this type.

[[Romanesco broccoli]] has a distinctive [[fractal]] appearance of its heads, and is yellow-green in colour. It is technically in the Botrytis ([[cauliflower]]) cultivar group.

'''Purple cauliflower''' is a type of broccoli sold in southern Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom. It has a head shaped like cauliflower, but consisting of tiny flower buds. It sometimes, but not always, has a purple cast to the tips of the flower buds.

Other cultivar groups of ''Brassica oleracea'' include [[cabbage]] (Capitata Group), [[cauliflower]] (Botrytis Group), [[kale]] and [[collard greens]] (Acephala Group), [[kohlrabi]] (Gongylodes Group), and [[Brussels sprout]]s (Gemmifera Group). [[Chinese broccoli]] (Alboglabra Group) is also a cultivar group of ''Brassica oleracea''.<ref name=Dixon2007>{{cite book|last1 = Dixon|first1 = G.R.|year = 2007|title = Vegetable brassicas and related crucifers|isbn = 9780851993959|publisher = CABI|location = Wallingford}}</ref>

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Broccoli crop.jpg|Test plot-grown broccoli
Image:sa_broccoli_florets.jpg|Extreme close-up of broccoli florets.
Image:Broccoli_bloem.jpg | Broccoli flowers.
Image:Broccoli DSC00861.png|Two broccoli heads.
Image:Fractal Broccoli.jpg|[[Romanesco broccoli]], showing [[fractal]] forms
Image:Broccoli in a dish 2.jpg|Steamed broccoli
</gallery>

==References==
*[[Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture]], by L. H. Bailey, MacMillan Co., 1963




==External links==
*{{wplink}}

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