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{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Goldenrod
| image = Solidago virgaurea minuta0.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Inflorescences of ''Solidago virgaurea minuta''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asterales]]
| familia = [[Asteraceae]]
| genus = '''''Solidago'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
See text.
}}

The '''goldenrod''' is a yellow [[flowering plant]] in the Family [[Asteraceae]].

== Description ==

About 80 perennial species make up the [[genus]] ''Solidago'', most being found in the meadows and pastures, along roads, ditches and waste areas in [[North America]], and a few from [[Europe]] that were introduced some 250 years ago.

Many species are difficult to distinguish. Probably due to their bright, golden yellow flower heads blooming in late summer, the goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing [[hay fever]] in humans. The pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced by [[Ragweed]] (''Ambrosia sp.''), blooming at the same time as the goldenrods. Actually, goldenrod [[pollen]] is too heavy and sticky to be blown far from the flowers. Furthermore, goldenrods are pollinated mainly by insects.

Goldenrods are easily recognized by their golden inflorescence with hundreds of small capitula, but some are spike-like and other have auxiliary [[raceme]]s.

They have slender [[Plant stem|stems]], usually hairless but ''S. canadensis'' shows hairs on the upper stem. They can grow to a length between 60 cm and 1.5 m.

Their alternate leaves are linear to lanceolate. Their margins are usually finely to sharply serrated.

Propagation is by wind-disseminated [[seed]] or by underground [[rhizome]]s. They form patches that are actually vegetative [[vegetative reproduction|clone]]s of a single plant.

==Use and cultivation==
Goldenrod is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species - see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Goldenrods]]. The Goldenrod then forms a leathery bulb (called a [[gall]]) around the invading insect as a quarantine to keep it confined to a small part of the plant. Parasitoid wasps have evolved to find these galls, and lay eggs in the insect after penetrating the bulb. In a final nod to evolutionary complexity, woodpeckers have learned to blast open the gall and eat the wasp-infested insect holed up in the center.<ref>[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1674%2F0003-0031(1999)142%5B0102%3AFPOEGS%5D2.0.CO%3B2 [1]]</ref>

Goldenrods can be used for decoration and making [[tea]]. Goldenrods are, in some places, held as a sign of good luck or good fortune; but they are considered [[weed]]s by some.

Goldenrods bloom in late summer and early fall and some species produce abundant nectar when moisture is plentiful before bloom, and the bloom period is relatively warm and sunny. [[Honey]] from goldenrods often is dark and strong due to admixtures of other nectars. However when there is a strong [[honey flow]], a light (often water white), spicy-tasting [[Monofloral honey|honey]] is produced. While the bees are ripening the honey there is a rank odor and taste, but finished honey is much milder.

===Garden use===
British gardeners adopted goldenrod long before Americans. Goldenrod only began to gain some acceptance in American gardening (other than wildflower gardening) during the 1980s. A hybrid with [[Aster (flower)|aster]], known as ''x Solidaster'' is less unruly, with pale yellow flowers, equally suitable for dried arrangements.

''Solidago canadensis'' was introduced as a garden plant in Central Europe, and is now common in the wild. In [[Germany]], it is considered an [[invasive species]] that displaces native vegetation from its natural habitat.

Goldenrod is a [[companion plant]], playing host to some beneficial insects, repelling some pests

[[Image:Solidago canadensis 20050815 248.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Canadian Goldenrod (''Solidago canadensis'')]]

===Industrial use===
Inventor [[Thomas Edison]] expe
rimented with goldenrod to produce [[rubber]], which it contains naturally. Edison created a fertilization and cultivation process to maximize the rubber content in each plant. His experiments produced a 12 foot tall plant that yielded as much as 12 percent rubber. The rubber produced through Edison's process was resilient and long lasting.
The tires on the [[Model T]] given to him by his friend [[Henry Ford]] were made from goldenrod. Examples of the rubber can still be found in his laboratory, elastic and rot free after more than 50 years. However, even though Edison turned his research over to the U.S. government a year before his death, goldenrod rubber never went beyond the experimental stage.

===Medicinal use===
The variety Solidago virgaurea is a traditional kidney tonic. It has diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic and antiseptic action and seems to strengthen kidney function. This makes it useful as an agent to counter inflammation and irritation of the kidneys when infection or stones are present. The diuretic action is also useful in helping to dissolve kidney stones. See [[herbalism|herbal medicine]]

==Cultural significance==
The goldenrod is the [[state flower]] of the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Kentucky]] (adopted March 16, [[1926]]) and [[Nebraska]] (adopted April 4, [[1895]]). It used to be the state flower of [[Alabama]], being adopted as such on September 6, [[1927]], but was later rejected in favour of the [[camellia]]. Goldenrod was recently named the state wildflower for [[South Carolina]].

In [[Sufjan Stevens]]' song, [[Casimir Pulaski Day]], the narrator brings goldenrod to his girlfriend upon finding out that she has been diagnosed with bone cancer.

[http://www.singingbiscuit.com Carrie Hamby]'s song, Solidago, tells the story of [[Thomas Edison]]'s experiments with making goldenrod a domestic source of rubber during the 2nd world war.

==Species==
* ''Solidago albopilosa'' E.L. Braun : Whitehair Goldenrod
* ''Solidago altiplanities'' C.& J. Taylor : High Plains Goldenrod
* ''Solidago arguta'' Ait. : Atlantic Goldenrod
** ''Solidago arguta''. var. ''arguta'' : Atlantic Goldenrod
** ''Solidago arguta'' var. ''boottii'' (Hook.) Palmer & Steyermark : Boott's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago arguta'' var. ''caroliniana'' Gray : Atlantic Goldenrod
** ''Solidago arguta'' var. ''harrisii'' (Steele) Cronq. : Harris' Goldenrod
** ''Solidago arguta'' var. ''neurolepis'' (Fern.) Steyermark : Atlantic Goldenrod
* ''Solidago auriculata'' Shuttlw. ex Blake : Eared Goldenrod
* ''Solidago bicolor'' L. : White Goldenrod
* ''Solidago brachyphylla'' Chapman : Dixie Goldenrod
* ''Solidago buckleyi'' Torr. & Gray : Buckley's Goldenrod ({{StatusVulnerable}})
* ''Solidago caesia'' L. : Wreath Goldenrod
** ''Solidago caesia'' var. ''caesia'' : Wreath Goldenrod
** ''Solidago caesia'' var. ''curtisii'' (Torr. & Gray) Wood : Mountain Decumbent Goldenrod
* ''Solidago calcicola'' Fern. : Limestone Goldenrod
* ''Solidago californica'' Nutt. : California Goldenrod
* ''Solidago canadensis'' L. : Canada Goldenrod, Canadian Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''canadensis'' : Canada Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''gilvocanescens'' Rydb. : Shorthair Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''hargeri'' Fern. : Harger's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''lepida'' (DC.) Cronq. : Canada Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''salebrosa'' (Piper) M.E. Jones : Salebrosa Goldenrod
** ''Solidago canadensis'' var. ''scabra'' Torr. & Gray : Canada Goldenrod
* ''Solidago cutleri'' Fern. : Cutler's alpine Goldenrod
* ''Solidago deamii'' Fern. : Deam's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago discoidea'' Ell. : Rayless Mock Goldenrod
* ''Solidago fistulosa'' P. Mill. : Pinebarren Goldenrod
* ''Solidago flaccidifolia'' Small : Mountain Goldenrod
* ''Solidago flexicaulis'' L. : Zigzag Goldenrod
* ''Solidago gattingeri'' Chapman : Gattinger's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago gigantea'' Ait. : Giant Goldenrod
* ''Solidago glomerata'' Michx. : Clustered Goldenrod
* ''Solidago gracillima'' Torr. & Gray : Virginia Goldenrod
* ''Solidago guiradonis'' Gray : Guirado Goldenrod
* ''Solidago hispida'' Muhl. ex Willd. : Hairy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago hispida'' var. ''arnoglossa'' Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago hispida'' var. ''hispida'' : Hairy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago hispida'' var. ''lanata'' (Hook.) Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago hispida'' var. ''tonsa'' Fern. : Hairy Goldenrod
* ''Solidago juliae'' Nesom : Julia's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago juncea'' Ait. : Early Goldenrod
* ''Solidago latissimifolia'' P. Mill. : Elliott's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago leavenworthii'' Torr. & Gray : Leavenworth's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago ludoviciana'' (Gray) Small : Louisiana Goldenrod
* ''Solidago macrophylla'' Pursh : Largeleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago missouriensis'' Nutt. : Missouri Goldenrod
** ''Solidago missouriensis'' var. ''fasciculata'' Holz. : Missouri Goldenrod
** ''Solidago missouriensis'' var. ''missouriensis'' : Missouri Goldenrod
** ''Solidago missouriensis'' var. ''tenuissima'' (Woot. & Standl.) C.& J. Taylor : Missouri Goldenrod
** ''Solidago missouriensis'' Nutt. var. ''tolmieana'' (Gray) Cronq. : Tolmies' Goldenrod
* ''Solidago mollis'' Bartl. : Velvety Goldenrod
** ''Solidago mollis'' var. ''angustata'' Shinners : Velvety Goldenrod
** ''Solidago mollis'' var. ''mollis'' : Velvety Goldenrod
* ''Solidago multiradiata'' Ait. : Rocky Mountain Goldenrod, Alpine Goldenrod
** ''Solidago multiradiata'' var. ''arctica'' (DC.) Fern. : Arctic Goldenrod
** ''Solidago multiradiata'' var. ''multiradiata'' : Rocky Mountain Goldenrod
** ''Solidago multiradiata'' var. ''scopulorum'' Gray : Manyray Goldenrod
* ''Solidago nana'' Nutt. : Baby Goldenrod
* ''Solidago nemoralis'' Ait. : Gray Goldenrod, American Western Goldenrod
** ''Solidago nemoralis'' var. ''longipetiolata'' (Mackenzie & Bush) Palmer & Steyermark : Gray Goldenrod
** ''Solidago nemoralis'' var. ''nemoralis'' : Gray Goldenrod
* ''Solidago odora'' Ait. : Anise-scented Goldenrod, Sweet Goldenrod
** ''Solidago odora'' var. ''chapmanii'' (Gray) Cronq. : Chapman's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago odora'' var. ''odora'' : Anise-scented Goldenrod
* ''Solidago ouachitensis'' C.& J. Taylor : Ouachita Mountain Goldenrod
* ''Solidago patula'' Muhl. ex Willd. : Roundleaf Goldenrod
** ''Solidago patula'' var. ''patula'' : Roundleaf Goldenrod
** ''Solidago patula'' var. ''strictula'' Torr. & Gray : Roundleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago petiolaris'' Ait. : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
** ''Solidago petiolaris'' var. ''angusta'' (Torr. & Gray) Gray : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
** ''Solidago petiolaris'' var. ''petiolaris'' : Downy Ragged Goldenrod
* ''Solidago pinetorum'' Small : Small's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago plumosa'' Small : Plumed Goldenrod
* ''Solidago porteri'' Small : Porter's Goldenrod
* ''Solidago puberula'' Nutt. : Downy Goldenrod ({{StatusVulnerable}})
** ''Solidago puberula'' var. ''puberula'' : Downy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago puberula'' var. ''pulverulenta'' (Nutt.) Chapman : Downy Goldenrod
* ''Solidago pulchra'' Small : Carolina Goldenrod
* ''Solidago radula'' Nutt. : Western Rough Goldenrod
** ''Solidago radula'' var. ''laeta'' (Greene) Fern. : Western Rough Goldenrod
** ''Solidago radula'' var. ''radula'' : Western Rough Goldenrod
** ''Solidago radula'' var. ''stenolepis'' Fern. : Western Rough Goldenrod
* ''Solidago roanensis'' Porter : Roan Mountain Goldenrod {{StatusEndangered}}
* ''Solidago rugosa'' P. Mill. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod, Rough-stemmed Goldenrod
* ''Solidago rugosa'' subsp. ''aspera'' (Ait.) Cronq. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago rugosa'' subsp. ''rugosa'' : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago rugosa'' subsp. ''rugosa'' var. ''rugosa'' : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago rugosa'' subsp. ''rugosa'' var. ''sphagnophila'' Graves : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago rugosa'' subsp. ''rugosa'' var. ''villosa'' (Pursh) Fern. : Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago rupestris'' Raf. : Eock Goldenrod
* ''Solidago sciaphila'' Steele : Shadowy Goldenrod
* ''Solidago sempervirens'' L. : Seaside Goldenrod, Beach Goldenrod
** ''Solidago sempervirens'' var. ''mexicana'' (L.) Fern. : Seaside Goldenrod
** ''Solidago sempervirens'' var. ''sempervirens'' : Seaside Goldenrod
* ''Solidago shortii'' Torr. & Gray : Short's Goldenrod {{StatusEndangered}}
* ''Solidago simplex'' Kunth : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
* ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' (Porter) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' var. ''gillmanii'' (Gray) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' var. ''monticola'' (Porter) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' var. ''ontarioensis'' (Ringius) Ringius : Ontario Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' var. ''racemosa'' (Greene) Ringius : Rand's Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''randii'' var. ''randii'' (Porter) Kartesz & Gandhi : Rand's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''simplex'' : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''simplex'' var''. nana'' (Gray) Ringius : Dwarf Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''simplex'' var. ''simplex'' : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
*** ''Solidago simplex'' subsp. ''simplex'' var. ''spathulata'' (DC.) Cronq. : Mt. Albert Goldenrod
* ''Solidago simulans'' Fern. : Fall Goldenrod
* ''Solidago speciosa'' Nutt. : Showy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago speciosa'' var. ''erecta'' (Pursh) MacM. : Showy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago speciosa'' var. ''jejunifolia'' (Steele) Cronq. : Showy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago speciosa'' var. ''pallida'' Porter :Showy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago speciosa'' var. ''rigidiuscula'' Torr. & Gray : Showy Goldenrod
** ''Solidago speciosa'' var. ''speciosa'' : Showy Goldenrod
* ''Solidago spectabilis'' (D.C. Eat.) Gray : Nevada Goldenrod
** ''Solidago spectabilis'' var. ''confinis'' (Gray) Cronq. : Nevada Goldenrod
**'' Solidago spectabilis'' var. ''spectabilis'' : Nevada Goldenrod
* ''Solidago sphacelata'' Raf. : Autumn Goldenrod
* ''Solidago spithamaea'' M.A. Curtis : Blue Ridge Goldenrod
* ''Solidago squarrosa'' Nutt. : Stout Goldenrod, Big Goldenrod
* ''Solidago stricta'' Ait. : Wand Goldenrod
* ''Solidago tortifolia'' Ell. : Twistleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago tenuifolia'' : Slender Goldenrod
* ''Solidago uliginosa'' Nutt. : Bog Goldenrod
** ''Solidago uliginosa'' var. ''levipes'' (Fern.) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
** ''Solidago uliginosa'' var. ''linoides'' (Torr. & Gray) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
** ''Solidago uliginosa'' var. ''terrae-novae'' (Torr. & Gray) Fern. : Bog Goldenrod
** ''Solidago uliginosa''. var. ''uliginosa'' : Bog Goldenrod
* ''Solidago ulmifolia'' Muhl. ex Willd. : Elmleaf Goldenrod
** ''Solidago ulmifolia'' var. ''microphylla'' Gray : Elmleaf Goldenrod
** ''Solidago ulmifolia'' var. ''palmeri'' Cronq. : Palmer's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago ulmifolia'' var. ''ulmifolia'' : Elmleaf Goldenrod
* ''Solidago velutina'' DC. : Threenerve Goldenrod
* ''Solidago verna'' M.A. Curtis : Springflowering Goldenrod
* ''[[Solidago virgaurea]]'' : Goldenrod, Aaron’s Rod
* ''Solidago wrightii'' Gray : Wright's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago wrightii'' var. ''adenophora'' Blake : Wright's Goldenrod
** ''Solidago wrightii'' var. ''wrightii'' : Wright's Goldenrod

==Natural hybrids==

* ''Solidago × asperula'' Desf. (''S. rugosa'' × ''S. sempervirens'')
* ''Solidago × beaudryi'' Boivin (''S. rugosa'' × ''S. uliginosa'')
* ''Solidago × erskinei'' Boivin (''S. canadensis'' × ''S. sempervirens'')
* ''Solidago × ovata'' Friesner (''S. sphacelata'' × ''S. ulmifolia'')
* ''Solidago × ulmicaesia'' Friesner (''S. caesia'' × ''S. ulmifolia'')

== Note ==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Croat, T. 1967 - ''The genus Solidago of the North Central Plains''. - Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
* Croat, T. B. 1970 - ''Notes: Studies in Solidago. I. The Solidago graminifolia - S. gymnospermoides complex''; Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57: 250-251.
* Nesom GL. 1993. ''Taxonomic infrastructure of Solidago and Oligoneuron (Asteraceae: Astereae) and observations on their phylogenetic position''. Phytologia 75:1–44.

==See also==
* [[List of beneficial weeds]]
* [[List of companion plants]]

==Exter
nal links==
* [http://ontariowildflowers.com/main/group.php?id=2 Goldenrods of Ontario]
* Goldenrod identification: http://www.ontariowildflower.com/goldenrods.htm
* Goldenrods as state flowers: http://www.geobop.com/Symbols/plants/flowers/goldenrods/

[[Category:Asteraceae]]

Goldenrod - Revision history

WikiWorks at 14:31, 4 April 2007